Demarcation of science: Paradigms

There are problems to solve

The groundwork one is working on. This can change

The change that happen that a new normal science is needed. We accept new theories

A ruling paradigm states the accepted theory of the day Their [textbooks] achievement was sufficiently unprecedented to attract an enduring group of adherents away from competing modes of scientific activity It was sufficiently open-ended to leave all sorts of problems for the redefined group of practitioners to resolve

Impossible to measure or compare

Claims to describe how things really are, as opposed to how they should be

Science does not add up linear. With a new paradigm it starts over

Multiple observations that does not fit with the current paradigm

Multiple papers and experiments do not give the same results when other researchers try to replicate them

Do not exist. Everything arises from a context

When and how something was discovered

How to say if something is valid (typically observations)

Can occur when there are observations that do not fit with the current normal science

An official decision that is made after a group or organization has voted. “A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it”

Accumulation of effects to be explained. Lack of agreed upon standard theories Lack of standard theory means that observation will be understood differently

McGurk effect Stroop interference Reasoning errors Visual illusions Recency/primacy effects Pop-out effect Many priming effects

Behaviorism Computationalism Connectionism Predictive processing

Asks what exists

Asks how we can know of the existence of something

How knowledge adds up. There are 4 different models: 1. Linear increase of knowledge 2. Increase of knowledge with accelerations 3. Paradigm shift 4. Distinct models

Immature science –> Normal science –> Crisis –> Revolution –> Resolution –> Normal science

The theory that parts of a whole are in intimate interconnection, such that they cannot exist independently of the whole, or cannot be understood without reference to the whole, which is thus regarded as greater than the sum of its parts

The way you should do something (science)

Change in paradigm. What changes with a paradigm is only the scientist’s interpretation of observations that themselves are fixed once and for all by the nature of the environment and of the perceptual apparatus. After a scientific revolution, many old measurements and manipulations become irrelevant and are replaced by others instead