Lecture 3

Democracy is a political system in which citizens govern, either by themselves or through others that are elected, influenced, and controlled by the people (direct or indirect), in a way that puts each citizen equal with every other (equality in influence)

• Effective participation: Before a policy is adopted, all the citizens must have equal and effective opportunities for making their views known to other citizens. • Equality in voting: When decisions about policy are made, every citizen must have an equal and effective opportunity to vote and all votes must be counted as equal. • Enlightened understanding: Within reasonable limits, each citizen must have equal and effective opportunities to learn about the relevant alternative policies and their likely consequences. • Control of the agenda: Citizens must have the opportunity to decide how and what matters are to be placed on the agenda. • Inclusion of adults: With minimal exceptions, all permanent adult residents should have the full rights of citizens that are implied by the first four criteria.

• Elected officials: decisions are checked and legitimated by elected representatives; • Free, fair, and frequent elections: elected officials are chosen in frequent, free and fair election; • Alternative sources of information: citizens have the right and the possibility to gather information from alternative and independent sources • Freedom of expression: citizens have the right to express themselves, also in a critical sense, on all possible political and administrative matters; • Freedom of assembly and association: citizens are free to organize themselves in associations and groups, including independent interest groups and political parties taking part in elections; • Inclusive citizenship: with minimal exceptions, no citizens are excluded from the abovementioned rights and opportunities, including the right to elect or be elected.

• Prevention of tyranny • Protection of essential rights • Guarantee of freedom • Self-protection • Self-determination • Moral autonomy • Human development • Restriction of inequality • Peace-keeping • Creation of prosperity (denk niet dat je ze allemaal moet kennen, maar een paar is handig)

• First wave: 1828-1926 (to 29) • First counter movement: 1922-1942 (back to 12) • Second wave: 1943-1962 (to 36) • Second counter movement: 1958-1975 (back to 30) • Third wave: 1974-1991 (to 65, of which 35 ‘most democratic’)

Process by which states build the institutions and processes needed to become stable democracies.

• Subversion/Liberalization of authoritarian regime • Transition to democracy • Consolidation of democracy • Deepening democracy

• Based on historical/philosophical background • Based on substantiality • Based on participation level • Based on institutional setting

• Level of Democracy: presence and substantiality (Freedom House; EIU; Polity IV) • Full democracy (liberal democracy) • Electoral democracy (illiberal/flawed democracy) • Model of Democracy: institutional settings (Lijphart; Maleki & Hendriks) • Majoritarian (aggregative) vs. Consensus (integrative) democracy • Participative (direct) vs. Spectative (indirect) democracy • Quality/Performance of Democracy: effectiveness and legitimacy (WGI; EIU) • Effective democracy • Ineffective/unsatisfactory/failed democracy

• Contestation (Competition) (How to decide?) • Right to compete • Rate of contestation (vs. cooperation) • Participation (Inclusiveness) (Who decide?) • Right to participate (suffrage) • Rate of participation

• Conceptualization • What to measure? (contestation & participation) • Measurement • How to measure? What indicators? (right or rate) • Index Construction • How to develop an index? (average, additive, factor analysis)

• simple majority of 50% + 1 decides (the winner takes all) * based on voting

• trying to reach the widest possible agreement * based on deliberation and consensus building

• Representatives make decisions/policies * Spectative democracy

• People directly participate in decision/policy-making via: • Participatory/deliberative methods • Campaigns/protests/social movements • Referendums

• Decisiveness, swiftness • Clarity, Unambiguous government • Sensitive to the majority • Clear-cut accountability • Winner takes all • Over-commitment, fixation • One-sided government • Insensitive to the minority • Zigzagging government • Dissatisfied losers

• Controlled integration, collaboration • Proportional representation • Pacification and accommodation • Channeled multiformity • Administrative expertise • Viscosity • Vague accountability • Avoidance behaviour • Cartel and backroom politics • Technocracy, expertocracy • Compromise politics

• Private initiative • Voluntary association • Client-oriented government • Result-oriented government • Vibrant civic culture • Trust in the individual • Business-like efficiency • Public recklessness • Tragedy of the commons • Tending towards consumerism • Distrust of the collective • Survival of the strongest

• Concord, communality • Trusting the collective • Residents’ participation • Self-determination • Control of governors • Uniformization, boundlessness • Distrusting individualists • Residents’ overburdening • Hyper-accountability • Fatigue of participation

• Absolute monarchy: ruling sovereign from royal family • Ruling party: rule by a single party • Personal rule: a president dominates government and media • Military rule: the military ruling through a junta • Theocracy: religious leaders rule • Competitive authoritarian regimes: “democracy without turnover, competition without alteration”(Huntington)