Biochemistry

Elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen Compounds Covalent: valence electrons shared (C6H12O6 glucose, CO2, H2O, O2) Ionic: electrons taken or given; has a charge (Na+, H+, K+, OH-, Ca+2, Cl-)

Water: 2 hydrogen, 1 oxygen Polar covalent bond: hydrogen side is positive, oxygen side is negative Hydrogen bond from polarity, not as strong as covalent / ionic Cohesive property: H2O can hold on to other H2Os Plants bring water from root to leaf against gravity as evaporation pulls it up Surface tension (water skipper) Beading (two 2 layers stick and hold bead together) Adhesive property: sticks to other molecules Cellulose helps to absorb CO2 for photosynthesis

Thermal properties Change of states: solid ice floats on liquid water (weird), otherwise bottoms of lakes would freeze, ice insulates lower water High latent heat of fusion (Lf; solid → liquid) and latent heat of vaporization (Lv; liquid → gas) Difficult to change state: takes time to heat, body uses lots of heat to evaporate sweat High specific heat (heat to raise 1 gram 1°c) because of hydrogen bond High boiling point: stays liquid over range of temperatures; no place gets to 100°c / 212°f Stable temperatures for oceans, land near oceans, cells Solvent properties: universal solvent for polar things, covalent / ionic bonds, proteins with ionic and polar regions

2H2O → OH- (hydroxide) and H3O+ (hydronium) pH scale: acidic (0) → neutral (7) → basic / alkaline (14) Acidic: H3O+ > OH- basic: OH- > H3O+ Each unit on scale is tenfold different in concentration Water is neutral Stomach is 2 Most bodily fluid is 6 - 8 Molecule buffers in body minimize pH changes by accepting / donating H3O+ to neutralize Used between stomach and intestines

Made of monosaccharides (C6 H12 O6); form rings in water Monosaccharides: glucose (cell resp), ribose (make DNA / RNA), fructose (fruit, nectar), carbon skeletons take apart for carbon to be used in smaller molecules Disaccharides: sucrose (transport carbs in plants), lactose (sugar in milk) Polysaccharides: few to few thousands monos; starch, cellulose, glycogen Usually soluble, can be hard when long

Condensation synthesis: water formed between OH on one and H on another Glycosidic linkage leaves oxygen between monosaccharides Binds glycerol to fatty acid, leaves oxygen Peptide bond links carboxyl and amine groups Hydrolysis: add water to break down macromolecules

Includes fats, phospholipids, steroids Made of one glycerol (3C chain with hydroxide on one side, otherwise H) and 3 fatty acids (C chain with H, hydrophobic carboxyl group with double bond to O and an OH) Linked via condensation synthesis Unsaturated with H: missing H → double bond between Cs → bend (plants, oils) If saturated, they can stack up (in blood stream), (meat) Functions: energy storage (2x energy/gram than carbs/protiens, adipose cells, seeds), thermal insulation Butyric and palmitic acid, phospholipids (1 acid → phosphate group, 2 acids are tails), steroids (animal only, 4 rings, cholesterol, testosterone, estradiol) Insoluble in water

Made of amino acids: amino, central C with variable R group, carboxyl 20 amino acids, R can be acidic, basic, polar, non polar Tryptophan, lysine, aspartic acid Protiens are a few amino acids to > 1000 Function depends on shape 1° primary structure: sequence of amino acids 2° secondary structure: coils from hydrogen bonding between aminos 3° tertiary structure: irregular contortions from bonding R groups (ex hydrophobic parts go inside, disulfide bridges) 4° quaternary structure: only sometimes, many polypeptides form a macromolecule

Some functions: collagen, vision pigment, spider silk, hormones, antibodies, muscles Enzyme: catalyze (but not consumed in) reactions; can denature if not in optimal conditions Immobilized enzymes in industry attach to material to speed reactions Proteom: all proteins produced by cell/tissue/organ Fairly soluble unless large or hydrophobic

DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid; double helix, directs replication and RNA synthesis RNA: ribonuleic acid; single strand, controls protein synthesis Made of nucleotides: phosphate group, pentose sugar, nitrogenous base Form by covalent phosphate-sugar backbone and hydrogen bonds between bases Soluble