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Square Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions

Circles joined Electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the nuclei of the bonded atoms

Difference in electronegativity, dipoles dont cancel out

Electrons in an atom are constantly moving Electrons can become unevenly distributed, creating a slightly negative charge This creates a slightly positive charge in neighbouring molecule

First ionisation energy decreases Atomic radius increases More inner shells so shielding increases Nuclear attraction on outer electrons decreases

First ionisation energy increases Atomic radius decreases Nuclear charge increases Electrons on same shell so, similar shielding Nuclear attraction increases

Boron - single electron in 2p sub shell Oxygen - electrons are paired in first p orbital. Electrons repel making it easier to lose the electron

Giant covalent lattices

Each carbon atom forms 4 strong covalent bonds Insoluble Doesn’t conduct electricity High MP&BP

Each carbon atom forms 3 strong covalent bonds meaning, 1 delocalised electron No bonds between layers so soft

Ionisation energy decreases down group Nuclear attraction decreases due to increasing atomic radius & increased shielding Reactivity increases down group Solubility & pH also increase

Diatomic, BP increases down group due to stronger London forces Reactivity decreases as less nuclear attraction so harder to gain electron

Pale green Pale green Dilute ammonia

Orange Orange Concentration ammonia

Brown Violet Doesn’t dissolve

Element is simultaneously oxidised & reduced

Weighted mean mass of an atom of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon-12

Ice is less dense than water due to the hydrogen bonding creating an open lattice Ice also has a higher melting & boiling point as it contains hydrogen bonding which requires more energy to overcome

As each electron is removed, the outer shell is drawn closer to the nucleus. Nuclear attraction is greater and more energy is needed to remove the next electron

3p subshell in Al has a higher energy level than the 3s subshell in Mg. 3p electron is easier to remove. P has 3 electrons in 3p subshell, 1 electron in each 3p orbital. S has 4 electrons in 3p subshell, 2 electrons paired in 1 orbital and 1 electron in other 2 3p orbitals. Paired electrons in sulfur repel one another making it easier to remove one of those electrons

Giant ionic lattice High M&BP as electrostatic force holding the ionic lattice together is strong & requires a lot of energy to overcome Molten - can conduct electricity as there are mobile ions to carry a charge Solid - ions in a fixed position. Brittle - when the layers of alternating charges are distorted, like charges repel, breaking apart the lattice into fragments Soluble - polar water molecules break down the lattice and surround each ion in solution

Atoms ability to attract electrons towards itself in a covalent bond Increases across a period as atomic radius decreases & nuclear charge increases Decreases down a group as shielding increases and atomic radius increases so nuclear charge decreases

Definite molecular formula, Non & non Simple molecular lattice Molecules are held in place by weak intermolecular forces Atoms within each molecule are bonded together strongly by covalent bonds

Weak intermolecular forces broken by small amounts of energy Low melting and boiling points Covalent bonds don’t break when heated No mobile particles to carry a charge Insoluble in polar solvents - intermolecular bonding within the polar solvent is too strong to be broken