Key Habitats

-formed by eruption of underwater volcanoes -sone by the accumulation of sediment in shallow low-energy water=Attols -highly isolated -few or no indigenous mammal predators -have endemic species -isolation=hard for new species to colonise these islands - birds, marine animals, & seeds can make it to the island once there species tend to evolve to have individual ecological niches -unique species related to oceanic island- lemur, Aye-aye, galapogus giant tortoise -endemic species= species that is restricted to a single limited area -problems with isolation- inbreeding vulnerable - only 6.7% of land surface area -75% of the known extinctions since european expansion spec -isolation - few or no indigenous mammal predators - endemic species

-Harbor about 20% of the earths biodiversity -contain about 50% of the threatened species - high number of endemic species - increase the possibility of the discovery of medicine- features used in biomimetics -stop off points for migratory birds -only 6.7% of land surface area -but harbour around 20% of the earths biodiversity -75% of the known extinctions since the european expansion around the globe spec - importance- endemic species

-sea level rise -vulnerable to food chain disruption -pollution- rubbish washes up -tourists- uniqueness attracts them - seeds carried on shoes - increases activity and introduced species which could carry diseases -exploitation of existing species -medicines/ food -habitat destruction- fishing -hunting can be devastating - indigenous species hadn’t had much competitions since new predator species easily wiped out species- introduced herbivores ate indigenous plant species spec - species exploitation - -introduced species - habitat change/ destruction - sea level rise

there are many different organisations working to conserve these islands: -galapagos’ conservancy are working on rewilding giant tortoises, restoring and strengthening coral reefs and marine life, they are also trying to educate people on sustainability which will help to conserve species for future generations. -the galapagos conservation trust- is a uk registered charity that works with scientists authorities and local communities to tackle the threats towards the island - national park- tries to ensure that the travel to the islands has a low impact e.g. making sure landing sites have a low impact on the environment and that guides have the qualifications and know how to follow conservation principles -cruises- the passion Galapagos yacht and the infinity cruise, support conservation projects and the protection of local wildlife - other conservation efforts include- eradicating invasive species on Isabella island, making florena island sustainable and self-sufficient, constructing nests for the galapagos penguins to safeguard them from climate change -eradication of introduces species spec - eradication of introduced species - control of development and visitors

-deepwater trawling has over exploited fish populations, killed lots of bycatch (accidental catching) species -trawling damages the corals in the process -slow growth= slow recovery -the expansion of oil and gas exploration, deeper water has more resources -increased release of carbon dioxide causes ocean acidification- will eventually threaten the survival if deep water corals -limited knowledge- first discovered in 1970s spec - trawling - -oil and gas exploration - ocean acidification

-designation as marine protected areas (MPAs) which resist fishing and other activities to allow them to recover and thrive, they also serve as research sites to study the effectiveness of our conservation efforts -NOAA restoration centre is an organisation that works to protect deep water coral reefs. Their main efforts are towards planting nursery ground corals back onto reefs making sure the habitat is suitable for natural coral growth -limiting fishing -avoid buying coral products -protected areas established- stop trawling and other damaging activities spec -establishment of protected areas -control of damaging activities

-deep water corals are known to support a large biomass of fish, starfish, sponges and anemones - essential for slow growing species with a low productive rate -carbon sequestration- absorb calcium carbonate -potential medicinal properties -protect coastal areas by reducing the power if waves hitting the coast -only been discovered since 2010= limited time for research spec -research -fisheries

• do not depend on symbiosis -grow and recover slowly -temperature range = 4 degrees centigrade to 12 • no photosynthesis- do not rely on light (turbidity) -less affected by abiotic conditions -they are often found in or around the aphotic zone- cuts their growth rate in half (10mm per yr) -however the estimate shows that deep water corals can be up to 8,000 yrs old spec • cold and dark • -slow coral growth

-antarctic treaty 1959- international agreement -IWC (international whaling commission) -limit the number of tourists to prevent erosion or wildlife disturbance - limit fishing (set quota) -implement shoe covers, protective clothing no non native species to reduce the chances if introducing invasive species/ diseases - no military use (no weapons testing) to prevent damage to biotic/ abiotic environment - no mining/ resource exploitation to prevent pollution and habitat destruction -scientific research to increase our understanding / knowledge of this vital ecosystem - conservation of living organisms-fishing regulated by CCAMLS (commission for the conservation of antarctic marine living resources) spec= - The Antarctic treaty (1959) - fisheries control - Waste management -tourism control

-global climate change -ozone depletion- increased solar radiation -tourism -overfishing - scientific research -in 50 yrs the west coast of the antarctic has been warming rapidly, both on land and sea -upper ocean temperature to the west of the antarctic peninsula have increased over 1 degree centigrade since 1955 -political threat spec= -global climate change -ozone depletion -tourism -overfishing -future mineral exploitation -scientific research

-5.5 million square miles = 40% larger than Europe - ice and snow cover 98% of surface -low precipitation making it the worlds largest desert -large seasonal variations in temp causing sea ice to form and melt -average temp =-49 degrees centigrade - the sea is warner than land -most animals get their food from the sea where nutrients are high -land =barren -sea= thriving - permafrost and soil or underwater sediment that stays permanently frozen -penguins=keystone species -home to polar vortex -24 hr daylight summer -24 hr darkness winter spec= -very low temperature -low precipitation -high albedo -high levels of marine nutrients -large variations in ice cover -extreme seasonal changes

-control natural cycles -ice stores 70% of earths fresh water -ice has high albedo(materials ability to reflect light) therefore reflects heat and prevent the earth from heating -carbon sequestration can take place within water and ice -thermohaline circulation changes in heat and salt levels causing water to move -research -very few human influences -unique place for resources, research- isolated -endemic species -stable climate/ easy to predict -astronomical research - little light pollution and little cloud coverage -laser research -wildlife orca, whale, penguins, leopard seals, fish, petrels (bird), weddell seals spec= -water store -ice albedo -carbon sequestration -resources -research

-salinity=amount of dissolved salts in water -mangroves= found in brackish/ intertidal conditions -can survive in anaerobic conditions -strong drop roots which provide stability in soft muddy soils which helps them during tropical storms -halophytic trees- salt tolerant -only cover 0.1% of the earths land surface -plants that grow in saline environments have adapted to survive in high salt concentrations - mangroves provide a habitat for 341 threatened species across the world -can be found on more than 100 subtropical countries and cover over 140,000 square km -over 21 giga tons of carbon are held by mangroves worldwide 87% of that being in the soil below the mangrove roots -mangrove roots can control salt levels extraction and excretion spec= -tropical climates -halophytic trees -low oxygen availability

-protect organisms from fishing -habitat -production of o2 -medicinal (toxins produced by corals have been beneficial, coral has been used in bone grafts) -carbon sink(sequestration) -resources- food, souvenirs -biomimetics -research -prevents erosion -nutrient cycling -increases biodiversity -estimated 500 million people worldwide depend on them for their income -house 25% of all marine species -generate a global value of £6 trillion per year -provide cultural and spiritual importance -coastal defence reducing wave energy by up to 97% protecting shorelines and preventing loss of life and property from storm damage and erosion spec= -fisheries -erosion protection -medicinal discoveries -climate control -tourism

-grow horizontally 1 cm to 25 cm per year -grow vertically from 1 cm to 25 cm per year -can not grow above sea level -can’t be too deep or too shallow- to be in the photic zone (correct light intensity) -next to no tidal changes -must be in low turbidity water- ‘clean water’ -little fluctuation in salinity -as much bright light as possible - allow photosynthesis temperature must be constant 24- 29 degrees -only found in the tropics 30 degrees either side of the equator along the coast -symbiosis of a coral polyp . zooxanthellae= photosynthetic algae (gives corals its bright colours) . nematocysts= sting predators . cilia= trap food through filter feeding -interspecies relationship (in coral polyp)- that use nutrients very efficiently - very good carbon sink spec= -cnidarians -nutrition systems -high light levels -warm, stable temperatures -low turbidity -constant salinity

-direct exploitation for ornament/ souvenirs -bad fishing practices- dynamite fishing -boats . oil spills . anchor dragging . crashes - coral bleaching= happens when corals expel its algae usually a sign of stress not death, usually due to incorrect conditions - tourism (ecotourism) - medicine -any change in abiotic factors they die = makes them vulnerable -pollution- e.g. ocean acidification -increase in human activity (e.g. pollution) -global warming- oceans are becoming too hot spec= -physical damage caused by human activities -souvenir collection -sedimentation -climate change -pollution -fishing -introduced species

-coral restoration -NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) centre the group focuses on planting nursery ground corals back onto reefs - remove invasive algae which smothers the corals and blocks out the sunlight they require - grow garden and outplant to harvest millions of naturally produced egg and sperm to create millions of new genetic individuals -control of fishing/ tourism - permanent mooring buoys so no need for anchors -no take zones (NTZ) -reef creation - artificial spec= -control of damaging activities -establishment of protected areas

-stable and long living - because of this rainforests hold a high diversity of species - estimates range from 3 - 50 million species - the largest number of specialised niches makes the rainforests vulnerable to sudden change - very high in the rainforest- temp/ rainfall/ humidity/ light levels - high light levels means more photosynthesis so lot’s of food abiotic factors are constant thus little seasonal variation so even more food - the abundance of food means that animals have stopped evolving thus are vulnerable to biotic change - houses 50 % of all life on earth - rainforest stratification . forest floor . shrub layer . understory layer . canopy trees . emergent layer spec= -warm/ hot -high rainfall -high light levels -inter-species relationships -low seasonality • found on the equator = high light levels • high rainfall and transpiration rates • low seasonality +light = high photosynthesis • high ecological competition (light, predation, pollination, seed dispersal)

• aesthetic, cultural reasons • biodiversity, useful genes, ecological stability, food, medicines -climate stability • future generations • cultural preservation as it is home to 10 million people -soil conservation -carbon sink -sustainable management • large number of species in a very small area • 7% of landmass but has 90% of earths known species -plants with specialised niches -drip tip leaves- have pointed ends to channel water off during the heavy tropical rain -buttress roots- provide stability in the nutrient-poor soil -amazon river- longest river in south America. helps create a network of water sources that support the forest ecosystem -climate regulation • prevents soil erosion • indigenous communities spec= -high biodiversity -resources -carbon sequestration -hydrological cycle -soil erosion control • very high biodiversity - useful for: food, biomimetics, medicinal research, antitoxins • high amounts of resources - timber, resins, oils, food, medicine • carbon sequestration • transpiration for the hydrological cycle • soil maintenance- roots- prevent erosion D.O.M / humus

-cattle ranching -subsistence agriculture -roads -commercial agriculture - logging -deforestation rate = 10 football fields cut down every minute -a large number of specialised niches makes the rainforest vulnerable to sudden change - climate change- effects temperatures which creates less optimal temperatures for growth of plants and regulation of heat in animals -pollution- affects air quality leading to health problems for organisms spec= -fuelwood collection -timber for construction and furniture -agricultural expansion -mineral extraction -reservoirs -global climate change -exploitation of individual species -Direct exploitation - wood = fuels, timber = construction, economy = mahogany, animals= pets, orangutan -Deforestation= agriculture, mining, reservoirs - global climate change - temperature increases risk of drought, forest fires, lowers cloud cover and rain

• debt for nature swap if a country uses the money for environmental conservation environment<-> financial (debt relief) -selective logging FSC 1993 helps enforce this by providing guidelines that forest managers must follow -protected areas= kroup national park in Cameroon= protect 1,260 km squared spec= -establishment of protected areas -debt for nature swaps -sustainable exploitation • designated areas of protection = . Korup National park Cameroon . Rio Bravo in Belize . Alto maues reserve, Brazil

• deciduous forests- leaves change with the seasons -cover 9.7% of global land surface -only found in climates that have all 4 seasons -average yearly temp= about 10 degrees -found mostly in northern hemisphere and some in the southern hemisphere an exception = in the Himalayas -found in Europe, Eastern North America, East Asia -trees that are dominant there relate to the soil conditions . beech - moist soils . oak- wide range of tolerance . ash- alkaline soils -cannot have temperature extremes -no pronounced dry season -soils usually deep and fertile -canopy present from spring- autumn- lets more light through to bottom in winter, leaves self fertilise the soils -lack of food variety- one tree usually dominates a particular area so doesn’t provide much food spec= -regular water supply -summers not very hot -winters not very cold seasonality • water is available all year round • deep and fertile soils • increased organic content and retention due to high levels of vegetation/ roots • tree canopy present from spring to autumn - blocks light from the ground plants • food production does not exist in winter - Many animals store food / hibernate as a result winter is a weak point

-maintaining increased biodiversity of soil biota- insects, fungi etc -maintains a low biodiversity of plants as trees out compete -woodland resources - construction material, fuel, tools -recreation- aesthetic reasons, activities -hydrological cycle- trees intercept rain and stops flooding, they are also involved in transpiration -carbon sequestration- how trees store atmospheric carbon (photosynthesis) spec= -high biodiversity( - thus more stable if one population changes, the community will be fine) -resources ( - timber and food (more in forest resources)) -climate control - (carbon sequestration - excellent carbon store burning is ‘carbon neutral’ -soil erosion control -recreation - people like them (- water cycle- interception, evapotranspiration, root binding)

-woodland clearance . agriculture . urbanisation . plantations . transportation - roads - habitat fragmentation- vulnerable to being very fragmented (spread out) - woodland management spec= -deforestation for other land uses -fragmentation of remaining woodland -management change • clearing/ exploitation - farmland, monocultures, urban development, mineral extraction • habitat fragmentation - separated population become more vulnerable to inbreeding