B

“Those relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals” (Gross 1992)

Limit to Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory

Limit to: * data collection (interviews, questionnaires, observing behaviour) * validity and reliability issues * ethical issues: confidentiality, use of results, predicting performance. TOK: Issues relating to measurement

Consider: * athletes versus non-athletes * personality and sports type * predicting performance. Refer to the positions adopted by the skeptical and credulous groups of psychologists

“the internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behaviour”

Limit to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation theory

Limit to how extrinsic rewards influence intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic rewards seen as controlling of behaviour. Extrinsic rewards providing information about their level of performance. Extrinsic rewards will enhance intrinsic motivation when the reward provides positive information with regard to the performer’s level of competence

Limit to: * reasons for participation (achievement goals) * differing meanings that success or failure has for the performer (task versus outcome orientation)

Limit to Weiner’s classification for causal attributions. * Locus of stability * Locus of causality * Locus of control * Self-serving bias * Learned helplessness

Limit to: * drive reduction theory * inverted-U hypothesis * catastrophe theory.

Refer to the theories of arousal in B.3.2.Limit to: * drive reduction theory * inverted-U hypothesis * catastrophe theory.

Participation in sports and exercise influences a range of participant emotions such as depression, anxiety and pleasure. Limit to a discussion of the emotions that may be prevalent in physical activity. This may include: * positive emotions such as excitement, relief, pride * negative emotions such as anger, guilt, shame, anxiety, boredom * specific emotions that have a discrete effect on performance (for example, a negative mood is more likely to prime us to remember negative memories of past failures, and thus reduce our feelings of confidence to perform; similarly, a positive mood is more likely to prime us to remember positive previous outcomes, and increase our confidence to perform)

Limit to: * trait anxiety: Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) * state anxiety: Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2R).

Defined as a substantial imbalance between the demand (physical and/or psychological) and response capability, under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences. Include: * causes of stress (environmental demand) * stress response (person’s reactions) * stress experience (psychological interpretation) * actual behaviour (outcome)

Refers to the systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills. Include the following issues. PST: * is not just for elite athletes * is not just for problem athletes * does not provide quick-fix solutions. Consider the three phases of a PST programme: * education * acquisition * practice

Include: * associated with enhancing self-confidence and motivation * SMARTER (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, time, evaluate, review) goals * types of goals (outcome, performance, process).

Associated with concentration enhancement, selfconfidence, skill acquisition, emotional control, practice strategy and coping with pain and injury. Include: * external and internal imagery * protocol for imagery interventions

Associated with arousal regulation, reducing somatic and cognitive anxiety. Include: * progressive muscular relaxation (PMR) * breathing techniques * biofeedback.