A

Training is performing exercise in an organized manner on a regular basis with a specific goal in mind Overtraining is when an athlete attempts to do more training than he or she is able to physically and/or mentally tolerate. Overtraining results in a number of symptoms that are highly individualized. Overreaching is transient overtraining

Limit to: * flexibility training * strength and resistance training * circuit training * interval training * plyometrics * continuous training * fartlek training/speed play * cross-training.

Limit to: * changes to resting heart rate * chronic muscle soreness * reduced immune function and frequent upper-respiratory tract infections (coughs and colds) * sleep disturbance * fatigue * decreased appetite * sudden and unexplained decrease in performance.

Periodization—transition (post-season), preparation (pre-season), competition. Knowledge of macrocycle,annual plan to 4-year plan OR long term plan season plan or peaking for the goal competition of the year ✔ subdivided into mesocycles / three phases /preparation, competitive, and transition phases ✔ mesocycle:lasts for a period covering weeks or months; requires overload/increase in intensity; comprises microcycles / constitutes macrocycles; may be transition, preparation, competition; microcycle microcycles (7–14 days) ✔ within a mesocycle there are microcycles ✔

Include consideration of the meaning of efficiency with regard to energy liberation, ATP re-synthesis and heat production The core body temperature is usually above that of the surrounding temperature. This implies that the body continually produces heat, and that heat is lost to the surroundings at a rate that allows for the core temperature to be kept constant. The production of heat in the human body • All energy originates from the sun as light energy • Chemical reaction in plants convert light into storedchemical energy • We obtain energy by eating the plants or animals containing the energy • The body utilizes oxygen and food to produce energy - the reaction dependent on the mixture of macro and micro nutrients in the presence of oxygen • energy metabolism is controlled by many hormones including:insulin, glucagon, adrenalineandgrowth hormones • The core body temperature of a resting individual is thus mostly determined by their basal metabolic rate (BMR), which is affected by factors such as age, gender, hormonal levels etc. Basal metabolic rate: amount of energy expended daily at rest, release of this energy is sufficient only for basic daily routine Cellular metabolism (metabolic rate) are the chemical reactions taking place in human cells which are responsible for the maintenance of life We get our energy from food, which is chemically released within our cells as energy. This energy is stored in bodily tissues as a more dense energy compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The hydrolysis of ATP is what provides to muscles with energy to contract • Heat is a byproduct of metabolism: to get rid of the heat, it must be transferred away from the core, and be redistributed to the skin, where it can be lost to the environment.About 20-30% of the energy released is captured in the chemical bonds of ATP. The remainder(about70-80%)of the energy is lost asheat. • When metabolism increases, more heat is produced • When metabolism decreases, less heat is produced Humans require ENERGY to: • produce heat in order to maintain the internal body temperature ataround 37°C • to produce force (mechanical work) during muscle contraction Muscle contraction is about 20 percent efficient, with around 80% of thisenergy released as heat which must be removed from the body to avoidheat storage and too much of an increase in body temperature through: (1) Conduction, (2) Convection, (3) Radiation & (4) Evaporation The main sites of heat production are the regions of the body where demand for and thus production of ATP occurs at the highest rate.  Under sedentary (non-active conditions), most heat is produced by the internal organs in the thoracic & abdominal cavities, as well as by the brain.  As exercise intensity increases, an increasing proportion of heat production occurs in the skeletal muscles involved in exercise. Larger muscles tend to contribute more to heat production. ATP exists in every living tissues and its breakdown (aka catabolism) givesenergy for all life functions eg. action of the liver, brain and contraction ofmuscle tissue  Muscular-skeletal system through catabolic reactions convert biochemicalenergy from organic molecules into ‘mechanical’ energy (muscle contraction)and then ultimately to heat energy…a molecule called adenosinetriphosphate (ATP)

37 degrees0.6 + or - degree of error

Include the principles of conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation. Int: The ability of people who habitually live in very cold/hot climates to tolerate these harsh conditions compared with people who live in temperate climates could be considered 80% of thisenergy released as heat which must be removed from the body to avoidheat storage and too much of an increase in body temperature through: (1) Conduction, (2) Convection, (3) Radiation & (4) Evaporation The main sites of heat production are the regions of the body where demand for and thus production of ATP occurs at the highest rate. Thermal receptors are present in the hypothalamus and in the skin. They have sensors for heat and cold. Temperature receptors in the skin detect changes in the shell temperature (which increases or decreases based on external temperature). • Temperature receptors in other areas detect changes in the core temperature. • Changes that are large enough to result in the core temperature increasing above or decreasing below the normal physiological range result in signals being sent to a processing center in the brain known as the hypothalamus. ·The hypothalamus also has temperature receptors of its’ own that detect changes in the temperature of the blood that passes through it Based on the information it receives, the hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to effector organs (e.g. the muscles & skin), directing a coordinated response that results in an overall increase or decrease in body temperature. Thermal effectors respond to the stimuli sensed in the receptors. They are the skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, and sweat glands. • The response generally opposes the initial detected deviation (i.e. if an increase in temperature was first detected, the response would be to decrease the temperature), so that the normal physiological range is re-attained. • These changes generally fall into two categories:  increase or decrease the rate of heat production (by altering the metabolic rate)  increase or decrease the rate of heat loss (by conduction, convection, radiation or evaporation) In the COLD: • muscles shiver • skin blood supply is reduced (vasoconstriction) • prolonged exposure to cold results in an increase in metabolic heat production due to the increased output of thyroxin from the thyroid gland and epinephrine from the adrenal medulla In the HEAT: • skin blood supply increased (vasodilation) • sweating • ConductionConduction is the movement of heat from molecule to molecule. • Heat transfer by conduction requires contact between two objects of differing temperatures, e.g. the movement of heat from the body to the layer of air immediately surrounding the body. • The material & thickness of clothing affects conductive heat loss. • Convection • Convection is the movement of heat from one place to another by the movement of air or water, e.g. the transfer of heat from muscles to the skin surface by the movement of blood. • With an increased rate of air movement, air next to the skin that has been warmed by conduction is moved away and replaced by cooler air. In this way, the rate of heat transfer increases. • Convection accounts for the wind chill effect. • RadiationRadiation is the movement of heat from one place to another through a vacuum (i.e. without a connective medium).· Any object at a higher temperature than its surroundings radiates heat to objects at a lower temperature, e.g. the warming of the body by solar energy. • EvaporationThe change of state of water from the liquid state (e.g. in sweat) to the gaseous state (e.g. water vapour in the air) is known as evaporation and requires heat energy.580kj heat / 1 litre of water vapour Thermoregulation allows for the maintenance of a balance between heat production/gain and heat loss. The main routes by which evaporative heat loss occurs are through respiration and sweating. However, sweat that is wiped off or drops off does not contribute to evaporative cooling Note that on extremely hot days, conduction, convection & radiation can result in heat gain by the body. Evaporative cooling then has to remove this additional heat as well as the heat produced by metabolism.

Consideration of the role of the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamus is not required

Limit this to cardiovascular response (crossreference with topic 2.2.8), energy metabolism* and sweating. * The reduced muscle blood flow in high temperatures results in increased glycogen breakdown in the muscle and higher levels of muscle and blood lactate in comparison to the same exercise performed in a cooler environment

Heat-related disorders include heat cramps, heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Because of their relatively large body surface area and immature sweat response, infants, children and young adolescents are more susceptible to complications associated with exercise performed in the heat and the cold

Performing training sessions in similar environmental conditions (heat and humidity) for 5 to 10 days results in almost total heat acclimatization. Initially, the intensity of training should be reduced to avoid heat-related problems in these conditions. National representative teams/sportspeople choosing to acclimatize to the conditions of a host country during a major international sporting competition could be considered. Aim 8: The cost associated with the acclimatization of athletes using environmental chambers and/or expensive overseas training facilities (science and technology drives demand) could be explored. This also raises an ethical implication that poorer nations are unable to afford such support mechanisms and so their athletes are disadvantaged in comparison to athletes from wealthier nations

Include increased plasma volume, increased sweat response and reduced rate of muscle glycogen utilization

Consider shivering, non-shivering thermogenesis and peripheral vasoconstriction

For example, tall, heavy individuals have a small body surface area to body mass ratio, which makes them less susceptible to hypothermia. Small children tend to have a large body surface area to body mass ratio compared to adults. This makes it more difficult for them to maintain normal body temperature in the cold

A chill factor created by the increase in the rate of heat loss via convection and conduction caused by wind

Consider the thermal conductivity of water and air. During cold-water immersion, humans generally lose body heat and become hypothermic at a rate proportional to the thermal gradient and the duration of exposure. During swimming, the effect of cold water on body heat loss is increased because of greater convective heat loss. However, at high swimming speeds, the metabolic rate of the swimmer may compensate for the increased heat loss

Limit this to muscle function and metabolic responses.

Limit to frostbite and hypothermia

The principal barrier is clothing, the amount of insulation offered by which is measured in a unit called a clo (1 clo = 0.155 m2 K W-1). Consider the insulating effect of clothing. Consideration of exercising in water is not required

An ergogenic aid is any substance or phenomenon that improves an athlete’s performance

Specific names of banned substances need not be given. Limit to: * anabolic steroids * hormones and related substances * diuretics and masking agents * beta blockers * stimulants