Approaches in Psychology

Known as the Father of Psychology moved psychology from philosophical roots to controlled research. Set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s. Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes. Introspection – systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus. An experience was analysed in terms of its component parts e.g. sensations, emotional reaction etc. His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists

introspection is a systematic analysis of one’s own conscious experience. experiences are analysed in terms of their component parts, such as elements like sensation, emotional reactions. people were trained to do this analysis to make the data objective rather than subjective people were presented with standardised sensory events like a ticking metronome and asked to report their reactions. The same stimulus, physical surroundings and instructions were given to each person. (Once trained to introspect, researchers took as long as twenty minutes to report on their inner experiences from a one-second experiment!)

Wundt founded the Institute of Experimental Psychology • Wundt published one of the first books on psychology, helping to establish the subject as an independent branch of science Used the scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception Pioneered the use of introspection as a method to study mental states

Research was not Scientific Although Wundt was attempting to be scientific, other psychologists such as the behaviourists have criticised Wundt’s approach. The behaviourists said that ‘private’ experiences such as sensations and thoughts that were self- reported during introspection are not observable and are therefore difficult to measure. The experiences that Wundt’s participants were reporting were subjective. The behaviourists believe the only way to be more objective and scientific is by attempting to measure observable behaviour. This is a weakness because such criticism undermines the objectivity of Wundt’s work. However + Although Introspection may not seem particularly scientific, it is still used today to gain access to cognitive processes. For example, Griffiths used introspection to study the cognitive processes of fruit machine gamblers. He asked them to ‘think aloud’ whilst playing a fruit machine into a microphone on their lapel. He found that regular gamblers made more irrational verbalisations than non regular gamblers. Therefore, introspection can have practical applications in understanding behaviour in modern society Contribution to other Psychological Approaches One strength of Wundt’s methods are that they have often been credited as the start of cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology is a modern-day psychological approach which attempts to measure what is a happening in the mind using scientific methods. Without Wundt some have questioned if cognitive psychology would exist today. This is a strength because Wundt’s methods have been incredibly influential to cognitive psychologists and therefore the discipline of Psychology as a whole. Contribution to Psychology as a Science As Wundt applied the scientific method to studying the mind it means that in modern times psychology is considered a scientific discipline by many academics. If Wundt had never set up the first psychology lab it is possible that the study of the mind might still be tied to its philosophical roots and psychology might never have gained the status that it has today. This is a strength because Wundt’s influential work has paved the way for the study of psychology, as a respected discipline.

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning, without the need to consider thoughts and feelings. Behaviour is Learned through the Environment Behaviourists believe that humans are born a blank slate and that all our behaviours are learnt from the environment e.g., upbringing, culture and society, etc. This means that behaviourists are strongly on the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, and regard genetic influences on behaviour as minimal.

Classical conditioning - Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by unlearned stimulus alone. Operant conditioning - A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment. Reinforcement - A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Can be positive or negative. Punishment - The application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.

Behaviourist psychologists use the scientific method, and study only things that could be directly observed and measured eg behaviour and the environmental conditions that produce it. In their controlled laboratory experiments, behaviourist often use animals. A lab experiment can be defined as an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the independent variable to see the effect on the dependant variable, whilst maintaining strict control of the extraneous variables. Behaviourists accept Darwin’s theory of evolution - which states human beings have evolved from lower animals. As a result, behaviourists see the basic processes of learning as being the same for all species. Consequently, animals can replace humans as experimental subjects/participants. Behaviourists have studied rats, cats, pigeons and dogs to investigate how learning occurs.

Behaviour is Learned through Association Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, who was studying the digestion systems of dogs by collecting their saliva, developed classical conditioning. Pavlov noticed that the dogs began to salivate before food was brought to them. He hypothesised that the dogs had learned to anticipate food and this triggered their salivation. Pavlov conducted an experiment to test this idea. 1. Before Conditioning food is unconditioned stimulus-> salvation unconditioned response 2. Before Conditioning bell neutral stimulus-> no salvation no conditioned response 3. During Conditioning bell+food—> unconditioned response 4. After Conditioning bell conditioned stimulus–> salvation conditioned response

Aim: Watson and Rayner conducted a study to demonstrate that phobias can be learnt through classical conditioning. Procedure: A 9-month old boy called Little Albert was presented with a white rat. His reaction to the rat was noted. Next, Albert was again presented with the rat, however, this time a very loud noise was made by striking a steel bar with a hammer. This was repeated a number of times. Eventually the white rat was put in front of Little Albert, but in the absence of the loud noise Findings: Initially, Little Albert was unafraid of the rat, however, after it was paired with the loud noise, Little Albert developed a fear response. Even when the loud noise stopped, little Albert remained frightened of the rat. Conclusion: Fear can be conditioned in a young child. 5 days later Watson and Rayner found that Little Albert had generalised his fear to any small white object, such as a small rabbit and a white dog.

Skinner developed the Skinner box in order to test the effects of rewards on behaviour. A hungry rat was placed in the box. The box contained a lever and as the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately, a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever. After a few trials, the rats quickly learned to press the lever to gain the food reward. The consequence of receiving food ensured that the rat would repeat the action again and again. Skinner (1938) identified three types of consequences that can follow behaviour: 1. Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed. For example, the lever pressing behaviour of the rats in the Skinner box was positively reinforced with food pellets. In attachment, the mother rewards the babies crying with food. 2. Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement occurs when an animal (or human) avoids something unpleasant. For example, in the topic of attachment, the mother feeds the baby milk to avoid it crying. 3. Punishment Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an unpleasant consequence that decreases the behaviour that it follows. Skinner investigated the effects of punishment by introducing an electrified grid floor to the Skinner box so that pressing the lever resulted in a brief electric shock. Unsurprisingly, the rats quickly learnt not to press the lever.

Deterministic A limitation is that The Behaviourist approach can be accused of being deterministic in its view of human behaviour.The Behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as being controlled by past experiences that have been conditioned. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. Skinner said that any sense of free will is simply ‘an illusion’ and our past conditioning history controls our behaviour. This is a weakness as the approach is suggesting that people are not responsible for their behaviour. If our past experiences control our behaviour, then it means we cannot choose how to behave. If someone behaves in an immoral way, the approach seems to suggest it is not their fault. Evidence There are many pieces of supporting evidence for the behaviourist approach.Much of the supporting research is from scientific lab studies. For example, Pavlov’s dog supports the classical conditioning theory and the Skinner box research supports the operant conditioning theory (these will be taught in the next section). This is a strength because having supporting research adds validity and credibility to the Behaviourist approach. Evidence is needed to support a theory/approach Application A strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has real life application. The principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real-world behaviours and problems. For instance, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions. For example, token economies are used in prisons and psychiatric wards. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can then be exchanged for privileges. Additionally Classical conditioning has led to the development of treatments for the reduction of anxiety associated with phobias. Systematic desensitisation is a therapy based on classical conditioning and works by eliminating the learned anxious response (CR) associated with the feared object or situation (CS) and replacing it with relaxation. This is a strength because of token economies is that they have been very successful in treating and correcting prisoners’ behaviour. Additionally systematic desensitisation has a very high success rate of treating phobic patients. This shows that conditioning can be used in real-life.

believe in using scientific, lab-based experiments to study behaviour in an objective way SLT believes that learning occurs directly, through classical and operant conditioning but also indirectly (vicarious conditioning

The SLT says people (especially children) learn by observing what other people say and do. They are more likely to observe and imitate some people rather than everyone, these people are called role models. For social learning to take place, someone must first carry out the behaviour or attitude to be learned (this is called modelling). The individual that performs this role is referred to as a model. There are many different types of models: a live model might be a parent or a teacher or a member of a peer group. A symbolic model would be somebody portrayed in the media e.g., an actress. These models provide examples of behaviour that can be observed by the individual and later reproduced by imitating them. Identification refers to the extent to which an individual relates to a model and wants to be like them. It is more likely to happen if the individual feels that s/he are similar e.g. same sex. In order to identify with a model, the observer must feel that s/he would be likely to experience the same outcomes in that situation. If an individual can identify with a model this means they are more likely to imitate their behaviour. Friendly Likeable Age Gender Statua Vicarious Reinforcement Vicarious reinforcement refers to reinforcement that is not directly experienced but that occurs through observing someone else being reinforced. An individual who observes a model being rewarded for a certain behaviour is more likely to imitate that behaviour as they want the same reward. This is the idea that individuals do not need to experience rewards or punishments directly in order to learn. Instead, they can observe the consequences experienced by a model and then make judgments as to the likelihood of experiencing these outcomes themselves. When the opportunity to perform the learnt behaviour occurs the behaviour will be modelled. Similarly, if the individual observes a behaviour being punished it makes it less likely that the behaviour will be imitated.

We do not automatically observe the behaviour of a model and imitate it. There are certain thought processes (mediational I processes) that take place prior to imitation. Learning the behaviour: ATTENTION the observer must be paying attention and observing the model e.g. they must notice and pay attention to the behaviour being modelled RETENTION the observer must remember the behaviour they have seen. Behaviour may be noticed, but it is not always remembered. Performing the behaviour REPRODUCTION the observer must be capable of reproducing the behaviour they have seen e.g., they must be physically capable of imitating the behaviour. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old woman watching Dancing on lce. She may really enjoy seeing the moves shown, but she will not attempt to imitate them because she physically cannot do it. MOTIVATION- the rewards and punishments that follow behaviour will be considered by the observer. If the possible rewards are greater than the costs, then the behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the observer.

PROCEDURE: Children aged 2-6 years watched a film of an adult punching and shouting aggressively at a Bobo doll. The children were divided into 3 groups with each group viewing a different ending: Group 1 the adult was rewarded with sweets for their aggressive behaviour Group 2 the adult was punished (told off) for their aggressive behaviour Group 3 acted as the control group and did not see an ending to the film The children were then placed in a room with various toys, including a bobo doll and were observed. FINDINGS: Bandura found the children’s play was influenced by whichever ending they had seen: Group 1 showed a high level of aggression in their play Group 2 showed a low level of aggression Group 3 showed medium levels of aggression CONCLUSION: This study supports the idea of vicarious learning, e.g. the children learnt from watching the consequences of the adult’s aggressive behaviour

Deterministic Social learning theory is described as less deterministic than the behaviourist approach It suggests that when a person observes a behaviour, they have cognitive mental processes which allow the person to then choose whether to imitate it. For example, if a child observes a role-model acting aggressively, they can choose if they want to imitate this aggressive act. If they are motivated they are more likely to choose to imitate the behaviour.This is a strength as the theory says our behaviour is not entirely controlled/determined. The social learning theory takes into consideration that humans have a certain amount of free will, which is a more positive way of looking at human behaviour. Reductionist The Social Learning theory is accused of being reductionist on its view of human behaviour.The approach reduces all complex behaviour down to one cause i.e. the role of our models. The approach believes all behaviour is observed and imitated. This is a simplistic view of behaviour to think we only learn through mediational processes. The approach ignores other contributions such as the role of cognitive processes or neurochemistry and even the role of the unconscious mind. Perhaps it should take an eclectic approach. Evidence ere are many pieces of supporting evidence for the social learning approach. Much supporting research comes from scientific laboratory studies For example Bobo aggression study supports the SLT as it demonstrates the power if a child observing a role-model producing an aggressive act, the child will then go onto imitate this aggressive act.This is a strength as having supporting research such as this is good as it adds validity and credibility to the social learning theory Application The principles of social learning theory have been used to increase our understanding of why humans behave in a pro-social or anti-social way. Social learning theory can be used to explain how children develop aggressive behaviour or gender stereotypical behaviour. Gender behaviours and aggressive behaviours are modelled by same sex role models (usually parents or role models in the media) and these behaviours are then imitated by children, especially if they expect to be rewarded. It is a strength to know how children learn these behaviours from role models, as parents may use the theory to ensure they do not get exposed to these negative behaviours. Parents can attempt to ensure that their children do not get over exposed to negative role models in the media. They could also ensure that only positive pro social behaviour is being modelled at home. Methods Much of the supporting research comes from scientific lab studies. By emphasising the importance of scientific processes and their reliance on the scientific method, SLT, like behaviourism, gives psychology greater credibility and status as a science. Bandura used children in controlled lab experiments to investigate learning. This is a strength as lab studies are highly controlled, eliminating extraneous variables which allows us to say only the IV has affected the DV. In other words, we can confidently establish cause and effect between the IV and the DV.

The biological approach assumes that all human behaviour has a biological origin. This approach insists that to fully comprehend human behaviour, its necessary to understand biological structures and processes such as genes, the nervous system and neurochemistry. An individuals genotype is the set of genes an individual possesses and their genetic makeup, whereas the phenotype is the way which the genotype is expressed which is influenced by environmental factors. Geneticists have found that behavioural characteristics such as intelligence or mental illness can be inherited in a similar way to physical characteristics. Research has found that MZ twins have an increased concordance rate of developing schizophrenia compared to DZ twins demonstrating the impact of genes on Behaviour. Natural selection is in one of the main principle of the biological approach. This is when any behaviour that increases an individuals survival will be passed onto future generations. This is was proposed by Darwin. For example, aggression is a behaviour thought to be naturally selected. Biological Structures and neurochemistry on Behaviour One form of internal communication is through the electrical impulses which travel around our brain and body. The impulses are transmitted between neurons by neurotransmitters. Psychologists believe that neurotransmitter imbalances in the brain cause abnormal behaviour. the ns,cns pns autnomic explanation These chemicals are seen to be very important by biological psychologists as they are thought to affect behaviour. Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is associated with our “drive” and motivation. High levels of dopamine are related to schizophrenia. Serotonin is an inhibitory transmitter, adequate amounts of which are necessary to maintain a stable mood. Low levels of serotonin are related to depression. The endocrine system is a slower acting communication system which uses hormones released by the glands, for example, adrenaline

Reductionist The biological approach is accused of being reductionist on its view of human behaviour. The Biological approach reduces all complex behaviour down to one cause i.e. the role of neurotransmitters in our brain like Serotonin. It has said that low levels of serotonin can cause depression.This is a simplistic view of behaviour to think that depression can only be caused by depression. It ignores environmental factors or how faulty thinking could influence our behaviour. Evidence evidence- reseacrher from twins studies found that mz twins 49% cordance for depression and 17% for dz showing importanc eof genes. hwoever, not 100%, showing other factors such as the enviornent may be affecting behaviour. tbis suggests that the stress diathesis model is a better explanation for because, wehre geneticc vulnerability is inheralited, and then trigerred by a acute stressor from the environemnt Application A strength of the biological approach is that biological research has led to many treatments being developed to treat psychological disorders.Research into biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of drug treatments. Medication to treat serious mental illnesses, such as depression and schizophrenia have been developed. Although these drugs are not effective for all patients, they have revolutionised treatment for many.This is a strength because this is a strength of the biological approach because it means that sufferers are able to manage their condition and live a relatively normal life, rather than remain in hospital.

The cognitive approach focuses on the examination of mental processes: perception, memory, attention, consciousness. Because these processes are internal, they cannot be studied directly; instead, their operation must be inferred from the. observation& measurement of visible human behaviour Inference - going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that can’t be directly observed. Internal Mental Processes should be studied scientifically Cognitive psychologists explain all behavior through the internal, mental processes, such as memory, attention, problem solving and perception. the cognitive approach is concerned with the mental processes that occur IN BETWEEn stimulus and response The Role of Schemas Schemas are “packages” of information, beliefs and expectations in the mind developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system schema enable us to process vast amounts of information rapidly and act as a mental shortcut to prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli. As we get older, our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated. Schemas can distort our interpretation of sensory information and lead to inaccurate EWT. can cause biased recall (caused by errors in our processing of the sensory information that we receive) If we experience a situation or object that we do not have a schema for we might ignore that information or misinterpret it so that it fits in with our existing schemas. Schemas also contribute to depression and other mental disorders. For eg, if a child is overly criticised by their parents, they may develop a negative self-schema, causing them to interpret information about themselves in an abnormal way. Theoretical and Computer models. One way to explain and study mental processes is through computer and theoretical models. We cannot see mental processes therefore using a model enables psychologists to make inferences about how these mental processes work. There are overlaps between these two models, but theoretical models are abstract whereas computer models are concrete things. A theoretical model of something should never be taken as an exact copy of the thing being described, but rather as a representation of it. The Multistore Model To assist this inference, cognitive psychologists make use of theoretical models. Models enable the representation of complex conceptual processes so that their components can be better understood. the multi-store model of memory presents a picture of memory based on an information-processing analogy. Computer models compare the mind to a computer (computer analogy) by suggesting that there are similarities in the way information is processed. These models use the idea of the brain being the hardware (hard drive) and the mental processes e.g. attention and perception are the software. They use the concepts of ‘stores’ to hold the information and the concept of ‘coding’ to turn information into a useable format Cognitive psychologists use the computer analogy to simulate human mental abilities in artificial intelligence, to perform tasks that require decision making. Artificial intelligence is concerned with producing machines that behave intelligently. Expert systems are programmed with a body of knowledge and then used to deal with real world problems to replace the work of humans. An example is the Dendral programme which has been used to help chemists to establish the structure of complex molecules. The Emergence of CognitiveNeuroscience cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the brain structures,mechanisms and processes that are responsible for cognitive thinking. This involves the mapping of brain areas using scanning techniques to locate diff types of memory in diff areas of brain. PET scans and MRI scans now help psychologists to understand how areas of the brain are linked to different cognitive activities and emotions. The scans show which parts of the brain become active When someone is engaged in a cognitive task Cognitive neuroscientists also study atypical brains (eg people who have suffered brain damage). Brain injuries can be located using scans and patients are then asked to undergo cognitive tasks (e.g. memory test) while scanning takes place. If the person with the injured brain has difficulty with the task, it is inferred that the damaged part of the brain is responsible for that cognitive function.

Reductionist The Cognitive approach can also be accused of machine reductionism. This means that the approach reduces all complex behaviour down to mechanical processes, like the parts of a machine (input, output and storage systems). This is a simplistic view of behaviour as it ignores the role of emotion and motivation, and how this might affect our ability to process information. For example, research has shown how anxiety can impact the process of memory in eyewitness testimony.This therefore reduces the validity of the cognitive approach in explaining human behaviour. Evidence There are many pieces of supporting evidence for the cognitive approach. Much of the supporting research comes from scientific lab studies. For example, Johnson and Scott found in an eye-witness testimony study that a weapon can lessen a participant’s ability to identify the person holding it. this shows how Schemas can distort our interpretation of sensory information and lead to inaccurate EWT.This may therefore explain why eyewitnesses sometimes have poor recall for certain details of violent crimes. This is a strength because having scientific supporting research such as adds validity and credibility to the cognitive approach. Application A strength of the cognitive approach is that it has been applied practically in real life to help people.Our understanding of internal mental processes provided by the cognitive approach has led to the development of cognitive treatments such as C.B.T. For example the cognitive approach has helped our understanding of the way faulty thought processes lead to the symptoms of depression. This is a strength because cognitive based therapies have led to the successful treatment of peopl suffering from depression where faulty thinking is identified and altered.

Freud was one of the first people to challenge the view that mental disorders were physical illnesses. Instead, he proposed that psychological factors cause mental illness. He also believed that psychological rather than medical treatments are more appropriate for the treatment of these disorders. Methods used by the Psychodynamic Approach Freud’s psychoanalytical theory was based on case studies, which gather large amounts of detailed information about individuals or small groups. These cases were of patients with which he used psychoanalysis (‘talking cures’), the aim of which to bring unconscious mental activity to the conscious to release anxiety. Strength - useful practical applications, psychotherapy as a treatment for mental health issues

The conscious mind is above the surface and is the logical part of the mind. The preconscious mind contains stored memories that are easily accessed and made conscious. The unconscious is is the driving force behind our personality and protects the conscious self from trauma as traumatic (repressed) memories drive our behaviour. defence mechanisms eg repression are used unconsciously to reduce anxiety. inaccessible The unconscious mind is irrational and ruled by pleasure-seeking impulses. Limitation - subjectivity – unconscious thoughts can only be inferred from behaviour or reported thoughts.

Freud suggested that the personality is made up of THREE parts, the ID, the EGO and the SUPEREGO. According to Freud, a HEALTHY PERSONALITY is a BALANCE between these three personality structures. ID Developed at oral stage from birth. the Principle is pleasure Throughout life, the id focuses on self, is irrational and emotional and demands instant gratification of its needs.Id operates at an unconscious level and is therefore, not affected by the outside world. An overly strong ID can cause impulsive and immoral behaviour. EGO Formed at anal. principle reality The ego is the rational part of personality. It tries to work out realistic ways of satisfying the ID’s demands and find a balance with the expectations of the superego (balance id ans superego) If the ego in unable to find a balance, abnormal behaviour may occur. e.g., phobias. SUPEREGO Occurs in phallic stage of psychosexual development 3-5 years. principle morality. arises through identification with same-sex parent and internalisation of their moral standards. The superego incorporates the values and morals we learn from our parents and society. It is also contains the conscience.If the ego gives into the id’s demands, the superego may make the person feel guilty. Anxiety disorders are due to an over-developed superego. This causes a person to worry far too much.

help the ego manage the conflict between the id and the superego by providing compromise solutions to deal with unresolvable conflict. Provide a strategy to reduce anxiety. Through denial/displament or repression Unconscious processes so can’t be studied directly. Can be inferred from reported thoughts may help in the short term but if over used can lead to disturbed behaviour Repression: Pushing bad experiences or negative emotions into the unconscious so you no longer think about them. Displacement: so taking out& expressing your strong emotions onto a substitute object Denial: Refusal to acknowledge reality.