political ideologies chapter 2
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What is the central value of liberalism?
Freedom (liberty) — the belief that individuals should be free to think and act as they choose, as long as they do not harm others.
What does “individualism” mean in liberal thought?
The belief that the individual is the primary moral and political unit, possessing inherent worth and rational capacity.
Distinguish between egoistical and developmental individualism.
Egoistical individualism (classical liberalism): humans are self-interested and rational; society exists to protect liberty and property. Developmental individualism (modern liberalism): freedom allows individuals to grow morally and intellectually.
Define negative liberty.
Freedom from external restraint or interference — associated with classical liberals (Locke, Bentham, early Mill).
Define positive liberty.
Freedom to achieve self-realization and moral autonomy — associated with modern liberals (Green, Hobhouse, Rawls).
What is the liberal view of human nature?
Humans are rational, capable of reason and self-improvement, and should be trusted to make their own decisions.
How do liberals view the role of the state?
The state is a necessary evil — it protects rights and order but must be limited by law and consent.
What is constitutionalism and why is it central to liberalism?
The belief in limited, lawful government — power should be divided and accountable to protect liberty (checks and balances, rule of law).
What is meant by equality of opportunity in liberalism?
Everyone should have the same chance to succeed, but unequal outcomes are acceptable if based on talent and effort.
How do classical and modern liberals differ on the economy?
Classical: free-market capitalism, minimal regulation. Modern: regulated capitalism, welfare intervention to correct inequality.
What are John Locke’s main contributions to liberalism?
Natural rights (life, liberty, property), government by consent, limited state, right to rebellion against tyranny.
How did Adam Smith’s ideas support liberal individualism?
His “invisible hand” theory shows that self-interest in free markets benefits society; he advocated laissez-faire economics.
What is Jeremy Bentham’s principle of utilitarianism?
The “greatest happiness of the greatest number” — policies should be judged by their utility in maximizing collective welfare.
Why did Bentham reject natural rights?
He considered them “nonsense upon stilts” — preferring empirical, calculable measures of happiness over abstract moral claims.
Summarize John Stuart Mill’s harm principle.
The state may only restrict an individual’s liberty to prevent harm to others, not for paternalistic or moral reasons.
How did Mill evolve liberalism toward social reform?
Supported women’s rights, education, and protection of minorities within democracy — early form of social liberalism.
What was T.H. Green’s concept of positive freedom?
True freedom means the ability to develop one’s potential; the state should enable people to overcome poverty and ignorance.
How did L.T. Hobhouse expand Green’s ideas?
Advocated welfare, social justice, and redistribution as necessary conditions for real liberty and equality of opportunity.
What did Keynes argue about economic freedom?
Economic instability threatens liberty; state intervention is needed to maintain employment and prevent depressions.
What are John Rawls’s two principles of justice?
Equal basic liberties for all. Inequalities are just only if they benefit the least advantaged (difference principle).
How did Rawls redefine liberal equality?
By merging freedom with fairness — liberty remains primary but requires distributive justice to be meaningful.
What did Friedrich Hayek warn against in The Road to Serfdom?
Central economic planning erodes individual liberty and leads to authoritarianism.
What was Milton Friedman’s view of freedom and capitalism?
Economic freedom is fundamental to political freedom; government should focus on monetary stability, not social engineering.
Compare classical and modern liberalism’s views on the state.
Classical: “Night-watchman state” — protects property and order only. Modern: “Enabling state” — provides education, welfare, and social justice to expand real freedom.