3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 3.10

diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide (silica), fullerene, graphene

by heating pure carbon to very high temperatures under enormous pressures

• atoms are different sizes • so the layers are distorted • so the layers cannot easily slide

• the remaining atoms become positively charged metal ions • the delocalised electrons form a sea of electrons that moves freely between the positive metal ions

strong electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and the sea of delocalised electrons. this means they have high melting and boiling points

they are solids at room temperature with high melting points

atoms are arranged in layers which can slide over each other when force is applied

• stronger and harder • resistant to corrosion or extreme temperatures

• metals consist of giant structures • within the metal lattice, atoms lose their outer electrons • those that no longer belong to any specific metal atom are delocalised • delocalised electrons are able to move through the structure and carry a charge

• each carbon atoms bonds with four other carbons, forming a tetrahedron • all covalent bonds are identical, very strong and there are no intermolecular forces

• all outer shell electrons in carbon are held in the four covalent bonds around each carbon atom • there are no freely moving particles to carry a charge

• diamond has a giant covalent structure • there are strong covalent bonds between the carbon atoms • these need lots of energy to break

it can be used in cutting tools like drills

• each carbon atom is able to form 3 covalent bonds to other carbon atoms forming layers of hexagons, leaving one free electron per carbon atom • free electrons along the layers are free to move and carry charge • covalent bonds between the layers are strong, but the layers are attracted to each other by weak intermolecular forces

• giant covalent structure • strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms • need lots of energy to break

• arranged in layers • weak intermolecular forces between layers • as a result the layers can slide over each other

• pencils and industrial lubricant (because it’s slippery) • inert electrodes for electrolysis

• a single layer of graphite (a sheet of carbon atoms covalently bonded forming a continuous hexagonal layer) • only 1 atom thick

• extremely strong and very light • conducts heat and electricity • transparent • flexible

due to its unbroken pattern and the strong covalent bonds between the carbon atoms

the strong bonds between graphene’s carbon atoms are very flexible. they can be twisted, pulled and curved to a certain extent without breaking

• only absorbs very small amount of visible light that hits it, which means you can see through it • gives it the potential to be used for making computer screens in the future

• a group of carbon allotropes which consist of molecules that form hollow tubes or spheres • molecules are made of interlocking hexagonal rings, but they can also be rings of five or seven carbon atoms

• can be used to trap other molecules by forming around the target molecule and capturing it, making them useful for targeted drug delivery systems • huge surface area: are useful for trapping catalyst molecules onto their surfaces making them easily accessible to the reactants • some are excellent lubricants