plant communication

• Intra-species interactions (within the same species) Inter-species interactions (between different species) • These interactions can be positive (cooperation) or negative (competition), affecting stability and growth. • Negative effect: Competition for resources like light. Positive effect: Nutrient sharing between plants.

• Signal emission capability: Plants must be able to release signals. • Sensing capability: Plants need the ability to perceive signals. • Perception by the receiver: The receiving plant must have specific receptors to detect the signal. • Signaling cascades: Signals are transmitted from one plant to another in a series of reactions.

• Alert and induce responses to abiotic (e.g., stress) and biotic (e.g., herbivory) stresses. • Synchronize sexual maturation between male and female flowers. • Simultaneous fruit maturation. • Competition: Plants compete for resources by signaling nearby plants. • Resource access: Plants communicate to improve access to water, nutrients, and other resources.

• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Gaseous molecules released in response to stress or damage. • Terpenes: A class of compounds involved in signaling. • These signals depend on the developmental stage of the plant and can be either species-specific or general to all plants. • Combination of signals: Signals can work independently or in combination to trigger a response.

• VOCs such as ethylene are produced by plants under abiotic stress (e.g., water scarcity). • Ethylene is a simple gas hydrocarbon produced from the amino acid methionine and is involved in various responses.

• Local responses to wounding: Limiting damage and initiating repair mechanisms. • Defence signals for nearby plants: VOCs like Jasmonic acid (JA) and Methyl Jasmonate (Me-JA) alert other plants to potential threats. • Pathogen-induced defence compounds: Include phytoalexins, defensins, salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and ethylene to protect against pathogen attack.

• Chemical production to make plants less attractive to herbivores. • VOCs alert nearby plants to prepare defenses. • Predator attraction: Plants release signals to attract predators that will attack the herbivores.

• Volatile communication: Male and female plants use volatiles to synchronize sexual maturation, promoting seed formation. • Fruit ripening: Largely regulated by gibberellins (GA) and ethylene, with ethylene promoting the maturation process once the fruit reaches maturity.

• Germination and growth: Plants release chemicals to either promote self-germination or inhibit germination of other species. • Sesquiterpenoids: Potent chemicals that inhibit germination of competing plants. • Ethylene: Can also inhibit germination in surrounding plants.

Mycorrhizal fungi: Plants communicate with these fungi to facilitate water and nutrient uptake from the soil. Soil bacteria: Plants communicate with bacteria to enhance nitrogen uptake.