Research Methods (AS & A2) (Complete)

Measure of how close recorded result is to real value

Intervals between possible recorded results, eg ruler measuring in millimetres → more precise than one in centimetres

Sample accurately reflecting complete data set

Consistent, accurate results

-Result differing from other results w/ which it was expected to be similar -Repeating the study

Precise, accurate, reliable results upon which conclusions can be based

-Appropriate risk management -Practical equipment & materials required & how to use these safely + correctly -Data to be collected & analysed; using appropriate apparatus/instruments to record quantitative measurements (eg pH) & measure abiotic/biotic factors, selecting right sampling & statistical analysis techniques

-Identifying topic of interest -Finding out what’s already been learnt -Formulating hypothesis/null hypothesis that can be tested -Designing & carrying out experiment to test hypothesis -designing investigation, eg including consideration of location & timing of sampling sites, # & size of samples, standardised technique, stat analysis -Analysing results & drawing conclusions -Planning further research to fill gaps in existing knowledge/develop study further

To ensure data collected can be used to conclude whether a hypothesis should be rejected or accepted

-Sub-samples collected, then used to estimate full situation -Will only produce reliable conclusions if sub-samples are representative

Factors that may affect how representative they are; location, timing, size, number

A preliminary study

-If data aren’t being collected at single location, decisions will need to be made about positioning of sampling sites -It’s essential to avoid intro of bias due to deliberate selection of locations for convenience/to support or dismiss hypothesis → can be achieved by random/systematic sampling

-If study area has regular shape, grid can be laid out & coordinates of sampling sites selected w/ random numbers -If study area has irregular shape, all possible sampling sites can be numbered + selected using random number generator

-Involves samples taken using chosen interval distance/spacing -Choice of sampling sites isn’t based on choices made using observable differences in study area

To detect variable data w/out collecting more data than necessary → can be determined w/ preliminary study

-If factor measured changes w/ time, it’ll be necessary to sample on diff occasions to produce mean result representing ‘typical’ value/identify trends in changing values -Ideal time interval betw samples depends upon rate at which values change → can be determined w/ preliminary study

-Long-term changes; population changes eg tigers, area of rainforest, atmospheric CO² level -Seasonal changes; presence of migratory species, populations of annual wildflowers, temp, atmospheric CO² level, river level -Diurnal changes (24hr); light levels, temp, atmospheric CO² levels -Weather-related changes (minutes-weeks); flying insect activity, wind velocity, temp -Other short-term changes; road noise level

-If variable measured isn’t homogeneous, larger samples are more likely to produce representative results -Sample size needed can be determined using preliminary study

-Single samples may not be representative as may be variability betw samples. Collecting multiple will help eliminate effect of variability -# of samples needed to produce representative mean depends upon degree of scatter around mean, assessed by calculating standard deviation -Can be found w/ preliminary study -# of samples collected will also depend upon how results will be analysed. It’s easier to assess degree of stat sig of results w/ larger sample

-To allow comparison of results collected at diff times/locations/researches, must be collected in exactly the same way -Other variables affecting results must either be controlled/monitored to assess their effects

-To find out which species are present -To monitor habitat conditions, how they change & which conditions individual species require -To monitor features of populations, how they change over time -Population size -Age structure -Growth rates -Breeding rates -Territory size -Population movements -Reliable, representative data important in making good conservation management decisions

-What is being measured -Affected by rapid development of new techniques that may produce better results; more representative, quicker, more cost effective

-Study area, usually square, within which populations can be studied -Results from number of quadrats can be scaled up to estimate overall situation for entire area