exam questions I need to go over

endocrine- hormones excretory- waste immune- antibodies nutritional- nutrients Respiratory -oxygen

Forelimbs well developed; eyelids closed; outer ear completed; bone marrow formed; blood cells formed in bone marrow; sex distinguishable

Arms and hands fully shaped; skeleton completed; exercising of muscles evident; ears stand out from head

Fine hair covers body; gripping reflexes are developed; increased growth

Respiratory movements; digestive glands begin to function; tooth buds evident; eyebrows and eyelashes

Period of greatest growth; all systems functional except respiratory system

Accumulation of fat beneath skin; growth slowed

the dilation of the cervix is the time from the onset of labour to the complete dilation (or opening) of the cervix. With each contraction, the muscle fibres making up the uterus shorten a small amount, pulling on the cervix. This pull on the cervix shortens it so that it no longer projects down into the vagina. At the same time, the cervix is opened. This cervical dilation allows the foetus to move more deeply into the pelvis. As the contractions become more frequent and stronger, the head of the foetus is pushed more forcefully against the slowly dilating cervix. Complete dilation of the cervix marks the end of the first stage of labour

involves the delivery of the foetus and is often called the stage of expulsion. It frequently begins with the bursting of the membrane surrounding the foetus and a gush of fluid from the vagina.This distension of the vagina stimulates the woman to contract her abdominal muscles. These contractions, together with the contractions of the uterus, push the foetus through the vagina. Her pulse rate increases, and she usually begins to sweat from the effort required. Once the head has emerged, it turns sideways again to face the mother’s hips. This rotation allows the shoulders and the rest of the body to move more easily through the birth canal.

Once born, the baby begins to breathe with its own lungs, even though it is still connected to the placenta by the umbilical cord. The amnion, chorion and placenta are still inside the uterus at this stage. The umbilical cord is clamped, tied in two places, and then cut between the ties The uterus continues to contract, and about five minutes after delivery the placenta, other membranes and the remains of the umbilical cord are expelled. Together these are called afterbirth. Little blood is lost during this stage as the placental blood vessels constrict and contractions of the uterus squeeze shut the uterine vessels that supply blood to the placenta

The ductus venosus is a shunt that allows oxygenated blood in the umbilical vein to bypass the

hydrochloric acid, mucus and pepsin

• water • carbohydrates • lipids • proteins • minerals • vitamins

molecules that have a carbon chain.

passive reabsorption of potassium, chloride and bicarbonate ions

active reabsorption of sodium ions, water (depending on the body water needs). secretion of hydrogen and potassium ions, creatinine and certain drugs such as penicillin.

active reabsorption of water, depending on bodies water needs.

water salts amino acids fatty acids glucose urea uric acid creatinine hormones toxins various ions –

water glucose amino acids ions (sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonate) some wastes are partially reabsorbed (urea)

• excitability • contractibility • extensibility • elasticity

muscle cells are held together in muscle bundles sheath of connective tissue (perimysium) surrounds each bundle to help it function as a unit perimysium allows adjacent bundles to slide easily over one another as they contract sheaths of connective tissue (epimysium) hold bundles together, towards the end of the muscle they taper and blend to form the tendon

a muscle bundle is composed of muscle cells (muscle fibres) that lie parallel to each other in an elongated cylinder with many nuclei around each muscle fibre is a thin, transparent plasma membrane (sarcolemma) containing cytoplasm (sarcoplasm) between 10 and 100 micrometers in diameter and vary in length from a few mm to several cm

thread like structures found within the sarcoplasm of each fibre lie parallel to each other and run the length of the fibre tubular network called sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounds the myofibrils (a storage site for Ca2+, which is released to initiate muscle contraction) each is composed of many smaller myofilaments, which are made up of protein - myosin and actin

nuclear DNA is in the form of very long strands that are bound to proteins, the histones. mtDNA is in the form of small circular molecules that are not bound to proteins. mtDNA is passed from mother to offspring and nuclear DNA is a combination of both the mother and father.