option B

the relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguishes them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals

Human behaviour is a function of social learning and the situation Individual behaves how he learned to behave, consistent with environmental constraits Primary methods in which individuals learn: Modeling/immitative behaviour - learning through observation Social reinforcement - based on the notion that rewarded behaviours are likely to be repeated Bandura´s 4 principles of social learning: Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation

our behaviours are based on inherent traits that we adapt to the situation we are in. So behaviour changes as a result of manipulation on environment B=f(P,E) B-behaviour E-Environment P-personality

Interviews questions or interpretation of drawings questionnaires are limited here you can uncover other issues lower reliability than questionnaires because interviwer has to interpret answers expensive and time consuming Questionnaires common self-report cheap and easy fairly reliable and used anywhere produces considerable amount of data for analysis Observing behaviour person is more likely to operate naturaly very expensive and time consuming Low validity difficult to interpret behaviour because the participant might know they are being watched act different to try to fit certain criteria (bias) evidence is too general personality can´t be predicted Ethical issues: all data must be confidential

traits-innate enduring personality characteristics that allow behaviour to be predicted 3 assumptions Tendencies to behave in a certain way are stable and unchanging over time Behaviour tendencies are the same in different situations Each person has a unique combination of these dispositions

The internal mechanism and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behaviour

Intrinsic-persue an activity for its own sake, the pride and satisfaction they achieve regardless of external efforts Extrinsic: stems for other people through positive or negative reinforcement, can come from tangeable rewards

Extrinsic rewards influence intrinsic motivation extrinsic rewards seen as controlling of behaviour Extrinsic rewards providing information about their level of performance Extrinsic rewards enhance intrinsic motivation when the reward provides positive information with regard to the performer´s level of competence

motivation is a balance between the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure Motive to acieve success * probability of success = approach success with the emtional reaction of focusing on pride of success Motive to avoid failure * incentive value of success = avoid failure Emotional reaction of focusing on shame of failure Achievement behaviour: seek out achievement situations, look for challenges, enhance performance Achievement motivation = the desire to succeed -fear of failure

A general physiological and psychological activation varying on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement

Drive reduction theory (linear positive correlation between arousal and performance) - depends on the precision of the sport and difficulty of the task, also how the individual deals with arousal Inverted-U hypothesis (there is a zone of optimal arousal parabola para baixo) it can shift in the x axis depending on the complexity of the task (simple is more to the right) Catastrophy theory (half of parabola up than starts to stagnate a litthe and drops dramatically) - predicts rapid decline in performance resulting from high cognitive anxiety and increasing somatic anxiety Performance = y arousal = x

positive emotions - excitement, relief and pride (can be bad) Negative emotions - anger, guil, shame, anxiety and boredom (can be good) positive mood: more likely to prime us to remember positive previous outcomes and increases confidence Negative mood: prime us to remember negative memories of past failures, reducing confidence and excitment

an emotional state, similar to fear, associated with arousal and accompanied by feeling of nervousness and apprehension

thoughts, nervousness, apprehension or worry that a performar has about their lack of ability to complete a task

physiological responses to a situation where the performer feels that they may not cope (increase Hr, sweaty palms, muscle tension)

anxiety felt in a particular situation they experience as threatning Elevated level before beginning of match or during tense moments like penalties Low during the game

the stable tendency to attend to, experience, and report negative emotions such as fears, worries and anxiety accross many situations. Part of the personality dimension of neuroticism vs emotional stability

Trait anxiety: sport competition Anxiety test (SCAT) State anxiety: competitive state anxiety inventory-2 (CSAI-2R) this is subjective and therefore bias

Definition: substancial imbalance between the demand (physical or and psychological and response capability, under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences. Causes of stress (environmental demand) Stress response (person´s reaction) Arousal, state anxiety, muscle tension, attension changes Stress experience (Psychological interpretation) amount of threat perceived Actual behaviour (outcome) Physiological symptoms: Increase Hr, breathing rate, blood presure, adrenaline release, perspiration and blood sugar Psychological symptoms: worry or apprehension, irratability, inability to concentrate, difficulty making decisions, aggression, increase rate of speech

The systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills is not just for elite athletes, not just for problem athletes, does not provide quick-fix solutions 3 Phases: education: Understand PTS: symptoms, causes and effects Recognize triggers and coping mechanism Goal: increase self awarness Acquisition Learn coping strategies: mindfulness, cognitive-behavioral strategies, grounding exercises, and stress reduction methods Professional interventions, such as therapy (e.g., Cognitive Processing Therapy or Prolonged Exposure Therapy), may also be introduced. Practice Apply coping skills in daily life Maintain progress with practice and support

how people evaluate competence and define successful accomplishments. Personal interpretation they have about what achievement means to them within a specific task 3 factors determine motivation: achievement goals: outcome/task oriented goals perceived ability: high perceived ability of competence low perceived ability of competence these 2 come together to influence —» achievement behaviour: performance, effort, persistence, task choice realistic/unrealistic tasks Ego-oriented: measure success based on beating others and being the best (extrinsic motivation) Task oriented: measure their success against themselves how well they complete the task Ego oriented fail and reinforces negativity leading to increased chance of failure Task oriented failed: learning opportunity develop skills increase success chances

Explains how individuals interpret success and failure focuses on the reasons people give for outcomes and their impact on future behaviour 3 dimensions for classifying attributions Stability: stable vs unstable (ability/luck) locus of causality: internal vs external (effort/quality of the opposition) Locus of control: in one´s control vs out of one´s control (race plan/ weather conditions) After success: tendency to use internal attributions (effort/ ability) After failure: tendency to use external attributions (luck, opposition) This is self serving bias Learned helplessness: belief that failure is due to factors beyong control, leading to demotivation

Identifying objectives to guide action and achieve desired outcomes associated with enhancing self-confidence and motivation SMARTER goals (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, time, evaluation and review Types of goals Outcome: relates to the outcome of an event usually involve comparison with others (winning a race being selected for a team) Performance: specific product of performance is relatively independent (swimming certain race time jumping a certain hight Process: relate to the processes that a performer will focus on during the performance (high knees or long stride pattern)

cognitive process of creating or recreating experiences in the ming without external stimuli associated with concentration enhancement, self-confidence, skill acquisition, emotional control, practice strategy and coping with pain and injury External: Individual imagines performing a task from someone else´s perspective (helps refine technique and get overall view of the performance) Internal: individual imagines performing an action from their own perspective (enhances proprioceptive awarness) Protocol for imagery interventions: set specific goals Use relaxed environment ensure vividness and controllability (realistic + detailed + focus on success) tailor imagery to the individual (according to skill level…) practice regularly Monitor and evaluate