the expression of genes

ribosomal RNA, makes ribosomes, it is the last set of genes to be turned off before cell division

transfer RNA, carries amino acids to ribosome during protein synthesis • they have an anticodon on one and carry the amino acid on the other. the anticodon will connect to the codon on the mRNA • it is RNA that is all folded up

messenger RNA, a copy of DNA that contains the information for protein synthesis.

DNA is used to make mRNA, • only genes are transcribed not all DNA; in front, there is a promoter sequence and a terminator sequence at the end (prokaryotes) • RNA sequence is complementary to DNA • new nucleotides are added on the 3’ end of the RNA and the synthesis in antiparallel

A - T (U in RNA) G - C

unwind and separate double-stranded DNA, read DNA template, adds RNA nucleotides, and reorganized promoters and terminators.

• 5’ cap is added at the for it to last longer and help transport; a modified guanine • introns are removed by spliceosomes, exons are kept (pre-mRNA to mRNA) • poly-A-tail at 3’ end to help transport mRNA (it is in back, it is the motor, propulsion); multiple adenine (poly-A) • caps are put because they need to get out of the nucleus therefore last longer.

assembly of amino acids into polypeptides

they have an N-terminal and a C-terminal (nitrogen on one end and carbon of the order) and they are arranged so the N-terminal is in front.

5’ to 3’, 5’cap to poly A tail (tail is at the end)

in enzymes, tRNA goes and gets the amino acid

codons that cannot be recognized by a tRNA, UAG, UAA, UGA are stop codons. when they have seen the ribosome breaks into subunits

AUG (also an amino acid)

They are synthesized by RNA polymerase III (does like a ribosome but for RNA), (reads DNA and makes an RNA copy)

section of DNA, from promoter to terminator. Read from 3’ to 5’ because you add basses on the 3’ end of RNA (so 5’ end of RNA is in front and they are antiparallel)

Somatic mutation; mitosis in daughter cells Germline mutation; before meiosis and end up in gametes

Silent mutation: base mutation but codon still codes for the same protein so phenotype stays the same missense mutation: new codon; so new protein, may change phenotype non-sense mutation: creates a stop codon, protein is shortened

deletion: a base pair is deleted; will shift the next amino acid creating new codons (changes all aa in exon after frameshift) insertion; same but add one Triplet deletion: lost one entire codon triplet duplication or insertion

a repressor is attached to the operator, this DNA is called an operon (genes). when an inducer attaches to the repressor it falls of allowing RNA polymerase to start transcription. This mRNA will be translated by ribosome creating the proteins needed.

lactose is sugar so if there is already glucose no need for more

a first structural gene on the operon; codes for enzyme B. galactosidase; breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose (lacZ, lacY, lacA) antialphabetical

an inducible system that only exists in E. Coli; genes in this operon are normally turned off, they turn on in the presence of lactose (procaryote regulation)

second structural gene on the operon; enzyme opens up the cell to let lactose enter (protein channel)

last structural gene in the operon; codes for enzyme transacetylase