Topic 5

the consistent production of goal oriented movements, which are learned and specific to the task

Cognitive Skills - the ability to solve problems by thinking Perceptual Skills - the process by which you sense things and interpret them Motor Skills - the physical execution of a skill (the voluntary muscle movement) Perceptual-motor Skills - involve the thought, interpretation and movement skills

Approaches to Classifying Motor Skills: Gross-Fine: Gross: Large muscle movements (e.g., walking, kicking a football) Fine: Small, precise movements (e.g., writing, darts) Open-Closed: Open: Unpredictable environments (e.g., football, netball) Closed: Stable, predictable environments (e.g., archery, free throw) Discrete-Serial-Continuous: Discrete: Clear start and end (e.g., golf swing, penalty kick) Serial: Series of discrete skills (e.g., triple jump, gymnastics routine) Continuous: No clear start or end, cyclical (e.g., swimming, cycling) External-Internal Paced: External: Environment controls timing (e.g., football, reacting to opponents) Internal: Performer controls timing (e.g., javelin throw, discus) Interaction Continuum (Individual-Coactive-Interactive): Coactive skills are those performed at the same time as others but without confrontation interactive has confrontation internally paced/self paced: Performed alone (e.g., high jump, archery) externally paced/competition Coactive: Performed with others, no contact (e.g., swimming, sprinting) Interactive: Involves direct interaction (e.g., rugby, football) go to notion

Continuum Football Archery Gross–Fine Primarily gross movements (running, kicking) Primarily fine movements (aiming, releasing bowstring) Open–Closed Open: Unpredictable environment with opponents Closed: Stable, controlled environment Discrete–Serial–Continuous Continuous: Repeated actions during the game (running, passing) Discrete: Single action (shooting an arrow) External–Internal Paced Externally paced: Reactions depend on opponents and ball movement Internally paced: Archer controls timing of each shot Interaction Continuum Interactive: Direct interaction with opponents Individual: Performed alone, no direct interaction Football involves dynamic, gross movements, with environmental uncertainty and direct interaction with others. Archery is more controlled, focusing on precision with minimal external influence.

the capacity for an individual to perform a specific skill

Physical Proficiency Abilities - relate to the physical or structural aspects of the body, they are more health-related Perceptual Motor Abilities - physical attributes that combine the senses, they are more skilled related 9 Fleishman’s Physical Proficiency Abilities: • extent flexibility • dynamic flexibility • explosive strength • static strength • dynamic strength • trunk strength • gross body coordination • gross body equilibrium • stamina 6 Fleishman’s Perceptual Motor Abilities: - reaction time - response orientation - speed of movement - finger dexterity - manual dexterity - response integration

In general terms, technique is a “way of doing”. In the performance of a specific sports skill it is defined as the “way in which that sports skill is performed”

Skill = ability + selection of an appropriate technique.

consistency, accuracy, control, learned, efficiency, goal-directed and fluency Skilled Performer Novice Performer would be very consistent as they are an expert (autonomous) in their sport would have many errors and not yet be consistent as they are still in the learning (cognitive or associative) stage more likely to be accurate, for the same reasons as above less accurate in their performance as they are less consistent and skilled will have more control in their movements as they have stored muscle memory from completing the action so many times will have less control, comes with lack of consistency and accuracy, as they have not had great time for practice they will be knowledgeable on their sport and technique may need assistance in understanding the correct technique will be able to achieve the desired goal much quicker than a novice player will take a long time to reach the desired goal will know exactly what they want to produce and what steps are needed to get there may know what they want to achieve but not the steps to get there difficult skills will look effortless and smooth will look erratic and uncontrolled

Information processing is the system by which we take information from our surrounding environment, use it to make a decision and then produce a response: input–decision-making– output. All the approaches are only models. Input and output are assessable/observable, but the decision-making process can only be speculation Information processing - the system by which we take information from our surrounding environment, use it to make a decision and then produce a response input – decision-making – output – feedback In response to input stimuli, the performer perceives the stimulus, and recounts by executing an appropriate output, after their brain goes through the decision making process. Feedback is then often given, so that the response can be altered to be made better if necessary. Example - Penalty kick in football: Input: the goalie observes the angle of the kickerDecision Making: the goalie makes a decision on where to diveOutput: the goalie follows with a diving movementFeedback: the brain receives feedback on the movement, which is apple for the next shot

Welford’s model (1968) includes: * sense organs * perception * short-term memory * long-term memory * decision-making * effector control * feedback. Welford’s model suggests that we: • take in information through our senses and temporarily store all of these inputs prior to sorting them out • the inputs that are seen as relevant to the decision, are then stored in the short-term memory • a decision is made by comparing the information in the short-term memory with previous experiences stored in the long-term memory • with reference to the long term memory for the required action the decision is carried out • the action and the results are stored for future reference • the whole process then begins again

Consider exteroceptors, proprioceptors and interoceptors The sensory input is gathered by three forms of receptors in the sensory system: Exteroceptors - they provide information about the external environment ↳touch, pressure, temperature, light, sound, taste, smell Proprioceptors - provide information about the position and posture of our body in space ↳ they detect movement Interoceptors - pass information from within the body’s internal organs such as the heart and lungs to the brain via the nervous system

Often referred to as the detection–comparison– recognition process (DCR). Limit to background noise, intensity of the stimulus, efficiency of the sense organs, early signal detection and improving signal detection. - it is the process by which the brain interprets and makes sense of the information it is receiving from the sensory organs - likelihood of detection is influenced by sensitivity of sense organs (ex eyes) - likelihood of detection is influenced by experience with familiar signals - selective attention can be improved through learning from past experience • sdpSignal detection (perception) is the process by which the brain makes sense of the atimudi received Short memory stores large amounts of information for a very short time Selective attention looks out for anticipated stimuli Selected stimuli is then compared to long term memory to select appropriate respons Often referred to as the Detection-Compårison-Recognition process (DCR detection – comparison – recognition (DCR) Detection: identification of the stimulusComparison: gather stimuli and compare to memory stores Recognition: the stimuli is matched to one stored in the memory Signal detection • Important information is called a ‘signal’ • Non-essential information is known as ‘noise’ • Factors affecting signal detection: • Intensity: how intense a stimulus is can affect the performers chances of detecting it • Sense organs: if someone has an impairment in one of their sense organs then they’ll obviously perform worse • Training: can create early signal detection bc the performer knows what to look for and how to react. & psychological training to help cancel out noise

Short-term Sensory Store: • Information enters the sensory system and is held there for a short period of time • Separate sections for each sense • Large capacity but for less than a second • Filters out irrelevant information so that the system doesn’t overload • It cannot retrieve previous informationShort-term Memory: • Holds information for several seconds, it can hold 5-9 items • Low capacity and short duration • Deals with present informationLong-term Memory: • Stores information from past experiences • Unlimited capacity - not everything can be retrieved • Information can be stored for a very long time

Selective attention (SA) operates in the short-term sensory store (STSS). Only the relevant information is passed to the short-term memory (STM) where it is held for several seconds. Selective Attention ensures that information overload does not occur and prevents confusion, as the brain would not be able to cope with streams of information. A filtering mechanism operates, which separates the relevant information from the irrelevant (noise) information so that athletes concentrate on one cue or stimulus (for example, the ball, position of player in a game of tennis) to the exclusion of others. SA is very important when accuracy or fast responses are required and can be improved by learning through past experience and interaction with long-term memory - *Sporting Example:* - In a football game when passing the ball, you may remember all of the training you have done on the skill and other variations of the move, but with the aid of selective attention, you recall and only think about where you have to go, in the position you are in and the situation you are in.

Association: Link new info to known concepts, creating mental connections for better recall. Practice: Repetition strengthens memory pathways, making information easier to retrieve. Rehearsal - repeating a certain skill over and over until it is memorized Coding - associating information with images so it can be recalled with those associations Clarity - learning information that is clear and simple will make it easies to remember Chunking - breaking up information so it is easily remembered Organization - if information is clear and in a logical format it is easier to recall Brevity - information should be kept brief so that it can processed easily

Response time = reaction time + movement time.

• Sex and age • Level of fitness • Fatigue/tiredness • Personality type • Number of stimuli • Intensity of stimuli • Length of neural pathways (if you are tall it takes longer)Hicks Law - the more choices you have the longer it will take to decide Response time is an ability, having individual and group variance (for example, gender and age). Reaction time includes stimulus transmission, detection, recognition, decision to respond, nerve transmission time and initiation of action. Include consideration of Hick’s Law.

when a stimulus is closely followed by a second stimulus, the first stimulus must be cleared before the second can be processed PRP helps to explain deception in sports - The task related to the first stimulus must be fully carried out before the second response can be made. The overlap is called the psychological refractory period • The PRP is the increase in Reaction Time to a second stimulus caused when the second stimulus has been delivered while the performer is responding to the first stimulus • Player has to sort out new and correct stimulus, but first they have to disregard the old and now useless stimulus and this causes the delay • Brain processes one action at a time causing a time delay in responding to the second stimulus S2 only becomes relevant when S1 is finished with; the delay in reaction time to a second stimulus is called the psychological refractory period; Strengths: can be used to help a performer have greater chances of success eg pretending to pass / run one direction then quickly changing to pass / run the other way; provides a performer with a greater range of options in their play; external noise eg other players calling, or crowd noise can enhance the effectiveness of the PRP; the more options that a player has will increase the reaction time to the stimulus <Hick’s law> eg the defender sees that an attacker has a number of passing options; Limitations: if a performer uses it too often, they will become predictable and this limits success eg dummying once to the left before leading to the right; PRP may be reduced by anticipation/early cue detection/effective coach analysis/ practising «open» skills eg a football player would be able to detect cues earlier than a swimmer; anxiety might make the performer get the timing wrong and thus the PRP is not effective; Award max [2] for an explanation of the PRP including a schematic representation if no example or evaluation is provided. Award max [4] if only strengths or limitations provided. Single Channel Hypothesis - you can only deal with one stimulus at the time, so the first stimulus needs to be attended before you respond to the second stimulus - can be used to help a performer have greater chances of success - provides a performer with a greater range of options in their play - external noise eg other players calling, or crowd noise can enhance the effectiveness of the PRP (Hick’s law) - if a performer uses it too often, they will become predictable and this limits success - anxiety might make the performer get the timing wrong and thus the PRP is not effective

a set of movements stored as a whole in the memory, regardless of whether feedback is used in their execution. • • a whole plan (executive programme/motor programme) and subroutines • coordination of subroutines • relegating executive programmes to subroutines. a set of movements stored as a whole in the memory regardless of whether feedback is available or not • • They contain sub sections, which breakdown the actions required in a sport Whole Plan (executive programme/motor programme) and subroutines: In order to successfully perform a motor skill, the performer is required to have a whole plan that specifies the timing and sequence of the movement. This motor programme can be broken down into smaller actions that are called subroutines. Coordination of subroutines: In order for a motor programme to be completed successfully, all subroutines must be coordinated, both temporally and spatially. This is why skills are initially taught in a closed environment as performers are less exposed to unpredictable situations. Releagating executive programmes to subroutines: A learned skill may initially form a new motor programme, but over time, this skill may be relegated to a subroutine, i.e. learning to drive a car, but then becoming a race car driver, you do not have to focus on the skill of actually driving a car.

Include Adams’ concepts of memory trace and perceptual trace. Open Loop Perspective: - Decisions are made in the brain - Information for one movement is sent in a single message - The muscles receive the message, where they then perform the movement. - Feedback may or may not be available but it doesn’t control the action Sporting Example: • Fast movements such as a tennis serve, golf swing - you can’t use the feedback to make changes when you are doing the action Closed Loop Perspective: • Decisions are made in the brain • Information is sent to at different times • Information is received by the muscles to initiate the movement • Feedback is always available and is necessary for correction of movement patterns and to adjust to changing needs. • When the performer detects an error, they use the perceptual trace, which is an immediate detection of the movement stored in the short term memory, and compare it to their memory traceSporting Example: • Cycling/running - you can use your feedback to make changes and improve your action Memory Trace - selects and initiates an appropriate response Perceptual Trace - acts as a record of the movement made over many practices.

Limit to: * intrinsic, extrinsic * knowledge of results, knowledge of performance * positive, negative * concurrent, terminal • Intrinsic (self given) • Extrinsic (given by others eg. coach) • Knowledge of results (was there a goal or was it a miss) • Knowledge of performance (correct technique, improper technique) • Positive feedback (encouragement) • Negative feedback (unconstructive) • Concurrent feedback (during the task itself) • Terminal feedback (after task completion) Intrinsic: is the physical feel of the movement as it is being performed eg the feeling of shooting in basketball; Extrinsic: provided by external sources, during or after a performance eg teammates or a coach providing feedback on the shot; Knowledge of results: focuses on the end of the performance or the result/outcome of the movement eg was the shot successful?; Knowledge of performance: focuses on how well the athlete performed the movement, eg the quality of the technique/movement pattern of the shot; Positive: usually provided by a coach or more experienced player. eg receiving praise for the shot; Negative: received when the movement is incorrect/unsuccessful. eg no praise; Concurrent: feedback received throughout the skill. eg information received from the shooter whilst shooting; Terminal: feedback received after the performance has been completed eg at the end of the basketball shot; Award [2] max for a list of feedback types with a relevant example.

• reinforcement of learning • motivation • adaptation of performance • punishment.

Learning is a relatively permanent change in performance brought about by experience, excluding changes due to maturation and degeneration. Performance is a temporary occurrence, fluctuating over time. A change in performance over time is often used to infer learning Performance - temporary occurrence fluctuates over time ex - beginners can produce one good shot but not w/ consistency Learning - a relatively permanent change in performance that results from practice or past experience ex - gaining consistency - a change in performance over time is often used to infer learning