Cells

ATP -> ADP + Pi . Releases energy. Allows ions to be moved against conc. gradient. Active transport

Na+ conc gradient maintained. Higher conc outside than inside the cell. So Na+ can move in by co-transport bringing glucose with it.

• folded membrane/microvilli, so large SA for absorption. • large number of channel/carrier proteins for fast absorption rate. • large number of mitochondria so more ATP

Amino acids join by condensation reaction. Which forms peptide bond which joins amine and carboxyl groups. Free amine group at one end and free carboxyl group at the other.

More pigment released in solution

Ethanol/alcohol dissolves the phospholipid membrane

Acid denatures membrane proteins, increases permeability

Two long strands, two short strands, antigen specific binding site, variable region, disulfide bridge

Have same/v similar structure, antibody complementary to both

Plant - pro Longer - shorter DNA associated with proteins called histones - DNA not associated with histones. Linear - circular (plasmids)

Makes DNA from RNA

Physical barrier - skin Phagocytosis - engulfing pathogen, lysosome, phagolysosome, digestive enzymes, harmless products released. Antigen- presenting cells produced - trigger cell-mediated response

Thelper cells bind to antigen on APC - activates cloning

Destroy infected cells, release perforin, cells die

B lymphocytes

Large proportion of population vaccinated. So pathogen cannot spread. Unvaccinated people v low risk. Important as protects the people who cannot get vaccinated.

B memory cells are able to quickly differentiate into b plasma cells and produce antibodies if come in contact with same pathogen. So no symptoms.

Takes over T helper cells Uses reverse transcriptase to make DNA from RNA Uses T helper cells to make copies of virus Leads to Th dying No b cells activated No immunity Immune system vulnerable Easily gets infected Progresses to AIDS

• binding - attachment proteins bind to CD4 receptors on Th cells -entry - envelope fuses with the Th membrane, released capsid into Th cell • RNA and Reverse transcriptase released • reverse transcription- DNA made from the HIV RNA • Transportation - new DNA transported into the nucleus • integration - DNA is inserted into cells own DNA which gets replicated when the cell replicates • Transcription - cell transcribes inserted DNA to make mRNA which will make HIV proteins and copies of HIV RNA • translation - mRNA translated to RNA and viral proteins at Th ribosomes • assembly - new HIV viruses made -maturation - new virus particles bud off to invade more cells

Blend - isotonic solution, buffer, ice cold. Filter - use gauze remove debris and large cell components. Ultracentrifugation - spin low speed, nuclei settle to pellet - move supernatant to another tube- spin higher speed, mitochondria/chloroplasts will settle to pellet

Nuclear envelope with pores. Genetic material in nucleolus DNA associated with histonea

Stored genetic information for polypeptide production DNA replication occurs Production of mRNA and tRNA Transcription occurs

Cellulose polymer

Chitin polymer