Carboxyl

1.From alkenes: Vigorous oxidation Oxidation of terminal alkenes attached to one H and one R H2SO4 (aq) and KMnO4(aq) heat 2.From Aldehyde: Oxidation H2SO4(aq) and KMnO4/K2Cr2O7 heat 3.From primary alcohol: Oxidation H2SO4(aq) and KMnO4/K2Cr2O7 heat w reflux 4.From esters: Acidic hydrolysis also forms alcohol HCl(aq), heat 5.From amides acidic hydrolysis also forms amine HCl(aq), heat 6.From acyl chlorides: Hydrolysis H2O(l), r.t. 7.From alkyl benzene side chain oxidation H2SO4(aq), KMnO4 (aq), heat 8.Nitrile acidic hydrolysis HCl(aq), heat

Carboxylic acids have a double resonance structure due to the delocalisation of negative charge over two highly negative O atoms. This greatly stabilises the carboxylate anion. Hence acid dissociation is most favoured

Polar and soluble in water as it can form H bonds with water mol. Solubility in water decreases as hydrocarbon chain lengthens MP and BP depends on size of electron cloud, degree of branching and extensiveness of H bonding (2 per mol, usually)

• Redox Na(s) to form carboxylate Na+ • Acid base w SB Carboxylate Na+ salt and water NaOH(aq) • Acid base with WB NH3(g) Carboxylate salt which is the conjugate acid of the WB • Acid base with Na2CO3 Carboxylate Na+ salt and CO2 (effervescence) and water • Condensation to form ester H2SO4 conc, R-OH, heat • Substitution to form acyl chlorides PCl3 anhydrous PCl5 anhydrous SOCl2 anhydrous HX(g) dry

• Substitution of CA

• Hydrolysis with water to form CA - H2O(l) • Alkaline hydrolysis to form carboxylate salt - NaOH(aq) • Condensation to form ester - ROH • Condensation to form primary, tertiary and secondary amides - NH3(g) to form -CONH2R - RNH2 to form -CONHRR - RNHR to form -CONRRR

• Acidic hydrolysis HCl(aq) heat to form COOH and OH 2.Alkaline hydrolysis NaOH(aq) heat to form COO- and OH

• Electronic factor: This is because C in acyl chlorides bonded to one highly electronegative O and Cl electron withdrawing groups inducing a greater partial positive charge on C which makes C much more electron deficient than in the other chlorides. Thus most susceptible to nucleophilic attack by an electron rich species • Steric hindrance is lesser due to lesser R groups being present making it easier for nucleophile to attack the electron deficient