Chapter 7

Actions that violate moral obligations.

Actions done purely because they are morally required, not for personal gain or inclination.

Actions that follow duty but are motivated by other reasons, like self-interest.

A will guided by reason and moral law, acting freely in accordance with duty.

A will influenced by external factors, inclinations, or consequences rather than moral law.

A categorical command applies to everyone, always — not just “if you want X, do Y.” It’s unconditional and based on duty, not consequences.

The test for moral rules: an action is right if its guiding maxim can be applied universally without contradiction.

Act so that you treat humanity, whether in yourself or others, always as an end, never merely as a means.

Duties that must always be followed (e.g., do not lie, do not murder).

Duties that allow some discretion in how to fulfill them (e.g., help others, develop talents).

Conditional commands based on desired outcomes (e.g., “If you want to stay healthy, exercise”).

Guidelines for achieving practical ends in life (technical or instrumental rules).

Advice for acting in one’s long-term self-interest; not moral law but practical reasoning.

Theory that punishment is justified as deserved for wrongdoing, not for deterrence.

Punishment aimed at preventing future crimes by discouraging offenders or others.

Punishment intended to rehabilitate the offender.

The good will—acting out of a pure desire to do good, regardless of consequences or personal gain.

• Rules of skill – end and means are variable (e.g., finding a restaurant). 2. Counsels of prudence – end (happiness) is fixed, means vary.

Happiness is subjective, uncertain, and cannot provide a universally binding moral standard.

• Act only on maxims you can will as universal law. 2. Act as if your maxims were universal laws of nature. 3. Treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means. 4. Harmonize maxims with a possible kingdom of ends.

Perfect duty: specific, must always be followed (e.g., do not lie, do not commit suicide). Imperfect duty: general, allows discretion in how to fulfill it (e.g., help others, improve oneself).