Topic 6

Only standard deviation needs to be considered • Error bars indicate the variability of data • They display the distribution of data in a line graph • Wider error bars mean less confidence in a value • Short error bars show concentrated values, suggesting a more likely average value • Long error bars indicate more spread out and less reliable values

Students should specify the sample standard deviation, not the population standard deviation. Students will not be expected to know the formulas for calculating these statistics. They will be expected to use the statistics function of a graphic display or scientific calculator

For normally distributed data, about 68% of all values lie within ±1 standard deviation of the mean. This rises to about 95% for ±2 standard deviations

A small standard deviation indicates that the data is clustered closely around the mean value. Conversely, a large standard deviation indicates a wider spread around the mean

Coefficient of variation is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean expressed as a percentage.

For the t-test to be applied, ideally the data should have a normal distribution and a sample size of at least 10. The t-test can be used to compare two sets of data and measure the amount of overlap. Students will not be expected to calculate values of t. Only two-tailed, paired and unpaired t-tests are expected.

Aim 7: While calculations of such values are not expected, students who want to use r and r 2 values in their practical work could be shown how to determine such values using a spreadsheet program

This should include a demonstration of causality in experimental results by the inclusion of control groups, randomization, placebos, blinding and double-blinding, statistical analysis.

Field Tests - tests in the actual context/environment ex. sprint test from home to first base in baseball Advantages: • conducted in the sporting environment • cheaper • increased ecological validity • easier to repeat Disadvantages - environment can alter test results - much planning in testing administration - relies on estimation of data - low internal validity | Laboratory Tests - test in a lab ex. measuring vo2 max while running on a treadmill at a lab Advantage controlled environment - sport specific equipment - stimulate sport’s demands - uses specific equipment DISADVANTAGES • not always accessible • limited value assessing team sports • not conducted in the sport environment • expensive • need expertise | Sub-maximal Tests - athlete works below maximum effort and data is extrapolated to estimate maximum capacity ex. Harvard step test Advantages - prevents injury over exertion - easy and safe to conduct - time and cost efficient Disadvantages • depends on extrapolation • small measurement inaccuracies can result in large discrepancies Maximal Tests - athlete works at maximum effort or to exhaustion ex. beep test Advantages • measurements can be more accurate • simple to set up and conduct • more than one athlete can be tested at once • can be done indoors and outdoors Disadvanteages: • risk of injury and over exertion • difficult to ensure the athlete is working to max • effort depends on athlete’s motivation | — | — | - specific to the sport

Health-related fitness includes body composition, cardio-respiratory fitness (aerobic capacity), flexibility, muscular endurance, strength. Performance-related (skill-related) fitness includes agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time and speed. Some components of performance-related fitness (agility, balance, coordination) could become health-related for certain groups such as the elderly and those suffering from hypokinetic diseases.

6.3.2 - Outline the major components of fitness identified in 6.3.1 | Flexibility | - hip and shoulder flexibility in gymnastics | | — | — | | Body Composition | - sumo wrestling (high % of fat) - weight lifting (high % of muscle mass) | | Agility | - tumbling in gymnastics - receiving balls in volleyball | | Balance | - maintaining balance during a handstand - staying on your feet during a rugby tackle | | Coordination | - coordination during breaststroke (pull of the arms with the strong kick) - coordination during a tennis serve (toss of the ball and striking the ball with other hand) | | Reaction Time | - gun at the start of the race in athletics - verbal guidance from teammates/players/coaches | | Strength | maximum strength - weight lifting elastic strength - sprinting or triple jump strength endurance - rowing or swimming | Component of Fitness | Sporting Example | | — | — | | Muscular Endurance | - arms in a 200 m swim - legs in a marathon - arms, abdominals and quadriceps in a 2000 m rowing race | | Speed | - sprinting - vaulting in gymnastics - fast bowling in cricket - fast pitching in baseball | | Power | - tackling in rugby or football - spike in volleyball - drive in golf | | Cardio-respiratory Fitness | - long distance running - cycling - swimming |

Consider validity, reliability and limitations of the following tests. * Aerobic capacity—multistage fitness test/ bleep test (Leger test), Cooper’s 12-minute run, Harvard step test * Flexibility—sit and reach * Muscle endurance—maximum sit-ups, maximum push-ups, flexed arm hang * Agility—Illinois agility test * Strength—hand grip dynamometer * Speed—40-metre sprint * Body composition—body mass index, anthropometry and underwater weighing * Balance—stork stand * Coordination—hand ball toss * Reaction time—drop test, computer simulation * Power—vertical jump, standing broad jump Aim 9: Issues of using direct and indirect measures of fitness, and the extrapolation of data and generalizations across populations, could be considered. Cultural variations in the establishment of standardized norms may also be explored. Aim 7: Opportunity to use computer simulation/ modelling and databases.

This should include: * warm-up and stretching activities * endurance training * cool down and stretching activities * flexibility training * resistance training * the incorporation of recreational activities and sports into the schedule.

Limit to: * progression * overload (frequency, intensity and duration) * specificity * reversibility * variety * periodization.

Limit to: * use of heart rate based upon its relationship with oxygen uptake, that is, target heart rate that coincides with a given percentage of maximal oxygen uptake * the Karvonen method * the training heart rate range/zone * ratings of perceived exertion (Borg/OMNI/ CERT scale)