Other hormones

• Produced by the pancreatic β cells • Helps regulate blood glucose levels by LOWERING blood glucose levels.

• Produced by the pancreatic α cells • Helps regulate blood glucose levels by RAISING blood glucose levels.

hypoglycemic agent

• Glucagon • Cortisol • Epinepherine • Thyroxine • GH/somatotropin

• Insulin start as the single chain Proinsulin • Poly peptide with two subunits (α&β) • During Storage, C-peptide is removed • No evidence for cleavage after secretion

• Blood Glucose • Amino acids: All AA are not equal, Arginine is best • Autonomic influences: vagal stimulation increases insulin secretion • Paracrine or Intra Islet Control: Somatostain (δ cell) inhibits the secretion of both insulin and glucagon.

• Transport of Glucose into cells by facilitate diffusion • Glucose utilization • Glycogen synthesis • AA transport by an active transport mechanism • Protein synthesis • FA transport • Lipogenesis • K+ & Mg++ transport

❖Muscle: stimulate glycogen & protein synthesis ❖Adipose: stimulate lipogenesis & inhibits lipolysis ❖Liver: stimulate glycogen synthesis (first), then lipogenesis

• Plasma glucose: • Amino acid: An increased plasma amino acid stimulates an increase in glucagon release. • Autonomic nervous system • Circulating ketones

• Glycogenolysis (primarily in liver) • Gluconeogenesis • Hormone sensitive lipase • Stimulate insulin release • Has inotropic effect on the heart

5-hydroxytryptamine

Neurotransmittor and as * as a modulator of vascular & GI functions

Serotonin produced in the: * Intestinal enterochromaffin cells * In the central/peripheral neurons.

Serotonin is deaminated to 5-hydroxyindoleactic acid (5-HIAA) which is the main urinary excretion product of serotonin metabolism.

• the endocrine cells of the antral (pyloric) mucosa (Stomach) • the proximal Duodenum (to a lesser extent) the cells of the Pancreatic islets.

transported via the blood through the liver to the parietal cells of the stomach.

• Stimulates secretion of gastric acid, • Stimulates secretion of gastric pepsinogens & intrinsic factor (IF), • ## Stimulates secretion of pancreatic HCO3, enzymes, and hepatic bile, • Increases gastric/intestinal motility, • Mucosal growth • Blood flow to the stomach.

a condition in which there is increased production of the Gastrin. * A small tumor (gastrinoma) in the pancreas or small intestine produces the high levels of gastrin in the blood

Synthesized from cholesterol in the ovaries, testes and adrenal glands. Once in the blood, they reversibly bind to sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG) Roughly 1-2% of the sex hormones are in the free form.

• Estradiol (E2): predominant estrogen in non pregnant females • Estrone (E1): metabolic product of estradiol • Estriol (E3): only produced in significant amounts during pregnancy.

steroid sex hormones derived from the ovarian follicle & adrenal glands

• Estrogens promote the secondary sexual characteristic changes in the female !hair distribution, fat distribution, breast development • Estrogens responsible for the follicular phase changes in the uterus.

Estrogen has local effect that improve growth follicular cell