Vocab

a type of volcano characterized by its steep, conical shape and layered structure formed from alternating eruptions of lava flows and ash.

a type of volcano formed from the accumulation of volcanic debris, such as ash and cinders, ejected during explosive eruptions, resulting in a steep, conical hill.

fragmented material produced by volcanic eruptions, including ash, cinders, and volcanic rock, that varies in size from fine particles to larger fragments.

one of the four major schools of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence, founded by Malik ibn Anas, emphasizing the practices of the people of Medina as a source of law.

small fragments of volcanic rock ejected during a volcanic eruption, typically ranging in size from 2 to 64 millimeters.

a type of mineral found in igneous rocks, crucial in the formation of rocks, particularly those formed from lava.

a fast-moving current of hot gas, ash, and volcanic rock fragments that flows down the slopes of a volcano during an explosive eruption.

precipitation with a lower pH than normal due to the presence of sulfuric and nitric acids formed from pollutants in the atmosphere.

the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of seismic waves through the Earth.

a fracture or zone of fractures in the Earth’s crust along which movement has occurred due to tectonic forces.

a graphical record produced by a seismograph that displays the amplitude and frequency of seismic waves over time.

the movement of molten rock that emerges from a volcanic eruption and travels down the slopes of a volcano or across the ground.

a large, basin-like depression that forms at the summit of a volcano after a violent eruption, resulting from the collapse of the ground above an emptied magma chamber.

a large, molten body of lava that occupies a crater or depression in a volcano, often displaying a dynamic surface with active lava flows and gas emissions.

a phenomenon where saturated soil loses its strength and stiffness due to applied stress, causing the soil to behave like a liquid.

a phenomenon where an object or system is driven to oscillate at its natural frequency by external forces, leading to increased amplitude.

seismic waves that travel along the Earth’s surface, usually causing more damage than body waves due to their larger amplitudes.

compressional seismic waves that are the first to be detected after an earthquake, traveling through solids, liquids, and gases.

shear seismic waves that arrive after P-waves during an earthquake, moving through solids and causing particles to oscillate perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

an instrument used to detect and record seismic waves generated by earthquakes or other seismic events.

a logarithmic scale used to measure the magnitude of earthquakes based on the amplitude of seismic waves recorded by seismographs.

A cosmological model proposing that the universe is eternal and unchanging on a large scale, with continuous creation of matter to maintain constant density as galaxies move apart.

A theoretical scenario where the universe’s expansion reverses, leading to a gravitational collapse into a singular state, potentially resembling conditions before the Big Bang.

A cosmological model suggesting the universe undergoes a series of expansions and contractions, oscillating between phases instead of having a singular beginning or end.