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Ultrasound uses inaudible, high-frequency sound waves to produce an image of the foetus. A probe is placed on the abdomen of the pregnant woman, and the sound waves are reflected by the foetal tissues to obtain a visual ‘echo’ of what is inside the uterus. The doctor feeds these reflected sounds, or echoes, into a computer to produce a screen image of the foetus for study.

confirming pregnancy • estimating the stage of pregnancy • determining the number of foetuses • identifying abnormalities of the cervix or uterus • monitoring the growth of the foetus • determining the gender of the foetus

Approximately 10–20 mL of the fluid is removed. Living cells from the foetus are floating in the fluid. These cells can be examined for biochemical defects and for abnormalities in the number of chromosomes or in the chromosome structure.

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is a form of prenatal diagnosis done to determine chromosomal or genetic disorders in the fetus. It entails sampling of the chorionic villus and testing it for chromosomal abnormalities, usually with FISH or PCR

Foetal monitoring is the regular recording of a baby’s heart rate in order to detect indicators of stress

fibre-optic scope that looks directly at the foetus through a small, telescope-like instrument with a diameter about the size of a large hypodermic needle. The fibre-optic fetoscope is introduced into the uterus through the abdominal wall. Examination of the outward appearance of the foetus may enable the detection of such conditions as cleft lip and palate, missing or abnormal ears, deformed or absent limbs, and spinal abnormalities, including spina bifida. If detection takes place early in the pregnancy, a decision about termination can then be made. Fetoscopy is also used during foetal surgery.

The blood may be taken from: • the umbilical cord via percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling (PUBS), where a needle is inserted through the abdominal wall and uterus into the umbilical vein • a foetal blood vessel, usually the liver or heart, via a fetoscope.

adv: examined for biochemical defects and for abnormalities in the number of chromosomes or in the chromosome structure. dis: involves a small risk of infection, miscarriage or damage to the baby.

adv: be used to detect genetic disorders and biochemical abnormalities and fast dis: risk of miscarriage following the procedure is 2%. cannot diagnose spina bifida.

detailed foetal heart rate analysis enables medical staff to check whether there is any risk of oxygen deficiency occurring. Oxygen deficiency during birth may result in brain damage, or even a stillbirth

Fetoscopy is a risky, difficult procedure that is only performed by a specialist doctor, usually after an ultrasound has indicated the possibility of foetal abnormalities such as spina bifida or Duchenne muscular dystrophy. indicated the possibility of foetal abnormalities such as spina bifida or Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

The results from foetal blood sampling are obtained within a few days, as opposed to a few weeks for other forms of diagnostic testing such as amniocentesis. However, the risk of miscarriage is higher: 1–2%. There is also a risk of infection, blood loss and premature rupture of the amniotic sac.

Detect spinal cord, such as spina bifida. Blood testing

enables the detection of a range of genetic disorders, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy and thalassaemia.

ultrasound to guide a needle through the abdominal wall into the amniotic cavity.

by which time the foetus is floating in about 130 mL of amniotic fluid

it is much faster with testing and results which can make termination the baby easier and earlier 10 week

is defined as being unable to achieve pregnancy despite frequent unprotected sex over the period of at least a year. In Australia, infertility affects approximately one in six couples.

produced in sufficient quantities • able to move in a forward direction • able to penetrate the corona radiata and zona pellucida.

• Semen, and the sperm it contains, may flow into the bladder, rather than out the urethra .• The male’s immune system may develop antibodies for their own sperm, altering them and reducing their effectiveness. • Blockages may occur in the male’s reproductive tract, especially in the vas deferens, which may stop the sperm from leaving the testes. • Hormonal imbalances can affect sex drive and the production of sperm.

s another factor affecting the fertility of females. PCOS is a hormonal condition where the ovaries contain many partially formed follicles that fail to mature. This means that the eggs are not released, and therefore cannot be fertilised.

affects approximately 10% of women. It is a painful condition where the cells of the endometrium grow outside the uterus. The resulting scar tissue or distortion of the uterine tubes can affect fertility by blocking the egg’s release or pathway through to the uterus.

are benign growths in the muscular part of the uterus. While they are very common, they only affect fertility if their location distorts the uterine cavity or blocks the uterine tubes.Blockages of the uterine tubes will stop the egg passing through to the uterus. This can occur following infections, such as gonorrhoea or chlamydia, or damage – for example, due to ectopic pregnancies.

Microsurgery can be used to solve some problems of infertility. Blocked uterine tubes and sperm ducts can be opened, and fibroids or endometriosis can be removed.